Overview

This is a curated collection of resources on specialized programming languages executed by decentralized peer-to-peer networks, also known as blockchains.

Let us define a smart contract, or simply contract, as a piece of code created by a blockchain user and executed by a blockchain node. A smart contract language (SCL) is a programming language that is either used to write a smart contract directly, or is compiled to it.

Programming languages differ on multiple dimensions, such as paradigm and type system. Due to a very unusual execution environment, SCLs have a different set of trade-offs compared to earlier languages. This spawned multiple attempts at creating secure and expressive SCLs.

Pre-Bitcoin

A formal language for analyzing contracts - an essay by Nick Szabo
E - referenced by Szabo

Bitcoin

Bitcoin Script - a stack-based non Turing complete Forth-like language used to write script that determine whether a UTXO can be spent.
Ivy - a non Turing complete higher-level language that compiles to Bitcoin Script (announcement)
Simplicity - a typed functional programming language utilizing combinators blog post, another one
BitML - a process calculus based language, compiles to Bitcoin script (article)
BALZaC - a high-level language based on the formal model proposed in [AB+18FC]
Miniscript - a language for writing (a subset of) Bitcoin Scripts in a structured way, enabling analysis, composition, generic signing and more
- Policy Language - nicer language that compiles to Miniscript
Sapio
Minsc - a high-level scripting language for expressing Bitcoin Script spending conditions based on Miniscript Policy

Ethereum

Last update in 2020:

Ethereum bytecode - a Turing complete stack-based language executed by the Ethereum virtual machine (EVM)
Solidity - a high-level imperative statically typed language compiled to EVM
Vyper - a high-level language compiled to EVM (announcement of formal tools from RV)
Fe - a language inspired by Vyper aiming to achieve its goals
eWASM - a restricted subset of WebAssembly for Ethereum contracts
Idris - a pure functional language with dependent types
Flint - a type-safe, contract-oriented programming language specifically designed for writing robust smart contracts on Ethereum
Formality - an efficient programming language featuring formal proofs
Huff - an efficient low-level language with macros
Lira - a declarative domain-specific language for defining simple yet highly complex financial contracts for EVM
Zinc - a language to write zero-knowledge circuits and ZKP-based smart contracts

No updates after 2018:

Bamboo - a high-level "formal-verification-friendly" language compiled to EVM
Pyramid - An EVM backend for SICP Scheme
Lolisa - subset of Solidity
Logikon - an experimental language for smart contracts

No updates after 2017:

LLL - a "low-level Lisp-like language" compiled to EVM bytecode (blog post, series of blog posts)
functional-solidity-language - pretty much self-descriptive :)
Serpent - a Python-like high-level language compiled to EVM (deprecated due to security issues with the compiler)
Babbage - "a mechanical smart contract language"
SolidityX - a typed-superset of Solidity

No updates after 2016:

L4 - a language "based on deontic modal logic", presented at Devcon 2 (Sep 2016)
Mutan - a C-like language compiled to EVM (deprecated)

IRs

Yul (ex JULIA, ex IULIA) - an intermediate language that can be compiled to bytecode for different backends.
Yul+ - a low-level, highly efficient extension to Yul
SlithIR - an intermediate representation that is used by Slither to enable high-precision analysis via a simple API. It supports taint and value tracking to enable detection of complex patterns.
Elle - The Elle source language, also known as Elle-Core, captures structured programming abstractions and enables their translation to Ethereum EVM bytecode through a verified compiler.

DSLs

Alacrity - a DSL for simple, formally-verified DApps
Ergo - Domain specific language for smart legal contracts
Sandcastle - a SQL Ethereum smart contract language
FSolidM - framework for visual programming of Finite State Machines
Findel - a non Turing complete financial DSL inspired by a S.P.Jones' work
the language from the paper by Egelund-Müller et al
Chorus - a financial contractual markup language by Firmo network
ADICO - a domain-specific language to support the contract modeling process
ink! - an embedded DSL for writing WebAssembly based smart contracts using the Rust programming language and targeting Substrate blockchains. Documentation

Other blockchains

Move - a safe and flexible programming language for the Libra Blockchain
Michelson - a stack based and strongly typed domain-specific language (Tezos)
Liquidity - a high-level typed smart-contract language that strictly complies to Michelson security restrictions (Tezos)
fi (Tezos)
LIGO (Tezos)
Plutus - a pure functional language with user-defined data types and polymorphism (Cardano); compiles to Plutus Core (video)
Marlowe - a domain-specific language for smart contract language embedded in Plutus (Cardano)
Rholang - a reflective higher-order process calculus language (RChain)
Obsidian - a state-oriented language with linear types
DAML - a smart contract language of Digital Asset
Simvolio (Apla blockchain platform)
RIDE - a non Turing complete language infulenced by Scala and F# (Waves)
Scilla - an intermediate level language for verified smart contracts (Zilliqa)
TxVM (Chain)
IELE - a variant of LLVM specialized to execute smart contracts on the blockchain
Pact - a smart contract language with a Lisp syntax but Haskell-like types (Kadena)
Ledger Design Language - a modeling language for describing public ledgers
Sigma-State (Ergo)
Sophia - a strongly typed language in the ML family (Æternity)
Varna - a non Turing complete high-level language (Æternity)
Fift - a stack-based general purpose programming language optimized for TON Blockchain smart contracts (TON)
Clarity (Blockstack)
Ethermint (Cosmos)
Secure EcmaScript (Cosmos)
Kadenamint (Cosmos)

nicovrg / smart-contract-languages