Updated 22 February 2024
Applied Cryptography for the Impatient is an index of technical terms, concepts and algorithms referenced in Cryptopals Challenges 1 - 28. It's hosted on GitHub Pages and published using docsify.
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- Links to more detailed references online
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Further reading:
Further reading:
A buffer is a storage in physical memory used to temporarily store data while it is being transferred from one place to another.
"Buffer". MDN Web Docs Glossary. Accessed 1 February 2024.
See also: Character encoding
Further reading:
An encoding defines a mapping between bytes and text. A sequence of bytes allows for different textual interpretations. By specifying a particular encoding (such as UTF-8), we specify how the sequence of bytes is to be interpreted.
"Character encoding." MDN Web Docs Glossary. Accessed 1 February 2024.
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a character encoding standard of 128 7-bit used by computers for converting letters, numbers, punctuation, and control codes into digital form.
"ASCII". MDN Web Docs Glossary. Accessed 1 February 2024.
A binary-to-text encoding scheme similar to Base64.
See also: Hexadecimal, Base64
Base64 is a group of similar binary-to-text encoding schemes that represent binary data in an ASCII string format by translating it into a radix-64 representation.
"Base64". MDN Web Docs Glossary. Accessed 1 February 2024.
UTF-8 (UCS Transformation Format 8) is the World Wide Web's most common character encoding. Each character is represented by one to four bytes. UTF-8 is backward-compatible with ASCII and can represent any standard Unicode character.
"UTF-8". MDN Web Docs Glossary. Accessed 1 February 2024.
A cryptographic algorithm, also called a cipher, is the mathematical function used for encryption and decryption. (Generally, there are two related functions: one for encryption and the other for decryption.)
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 2.
There are two basic types of symmetric algorithms: block ciphers and stream ciphers. Block ciphers operate on blocks of plaintext and ciphertext-- usually of 64 bits but sometimes longer. Stream ciphers operate on streams of plaintext and ciphertext one bit or byte (sometimes even one 32-bit word) at a time. With a block cipher, the same plaintext block will always encrypt to the same ciphertext block, using the same key. With a stream cipher, the same plaintext bit or byte will encrypt to a different bit or byte every time it is encrypted.
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 189.
Stream ciphers convert plaintext to ciphertext 1 bit at a time. ... .A keystream generator (sometimes called a running-key generator) outputs a stream of bits: k1, k2, k3, ..., ki. This keystream (sometimes called a running key) is XORed with a stream of plaintext bits, p1, p2, p3, ..., pi, to produce the stream of ciphertext bits. At the decryption end, the ciphertext bits are XORed with an identical keystream to recover the plaintext bits.
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 197.
A message is plaintext (sometimes called cleartext). The process of disguising a message in such a way as to hide its substance is encryption. An encrypted message is ciphertext. The process of turning ciphertext back into plaintext is decryption.
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 1.
What the attacker knows
- The format and language of the plaintext, e.g. ASCII-encoded English
- The method of encryption: Stream or block cipher
- The length and content of attacker-controlled plaintext
- The length and content of ciphertexts derived from attacker-controlled plaintexts
What the attacker must learn
- The bytes that must be substituted for a subset of the ciphertext such that decrypting the modified ciphertext produces the desired plaintext
See also: Cryptographic modes - CBC, Oracle
Further reading:
- Attacking CBC Mode Encryption: Bit Flipping, Zhang Zeyu, Medium
- Bit-flipping attack, Wikipedia
- Cryptopals Set 2 Challenge 16
What the attacker knows
- The format and language of the plaintext, e.g. ASCII-encoded English
- The method of encryption: repeating-key XOR
- The data type of the key parts:
u8 - The length, content and encoding scheme of the ciphertext
What the attacker must learn
- The length of the key
- The key
- The content of the plaintext
The attack
Decode the ciphertext and determine the length of the key KEYSIZE: For 2..=n, where n is the maximum likely key length, split the decoded ciphertext into blocks of n length and compute the average Hamming distance between the blocks. The n with the lowest average Hamming distance is the KEYSIZE.
Transpose the decoded ciphertext. Split the decoded transposed ciphertext into blocks of KEYSIZE length and recover the key KEY: For each block, iterate over each possible key value k in the range 0u8..255u8:
- Construct a candidate key: candidate
krepeatedKEYSIZEtimes. - XOR the block and candidate key.
- ASCII-or UTF-8-encode the result.
- Score the encoded result as English plaintext by comparing character frequencies in the encoded result to character frequencies in written English.
- Identify the
kvalue with the best score and add it toKEY.
Finally, construct a repeating key REPEATING_KEY using KEY. XOR REPEATING_KEY with the decoded ciphertext to decrypt.
See also: Brute force, Frequency analysis, Hamming distance
Further reading:
- Cryptopals Set 1 Challenge 6
- Frequency analysis, Wikipedia
- Letter frequency, Wikipedia
- Transpose, Wikipedia
What the attacker knows
- The range of possible keys
- The likeliest keys
- The amount of time and computational power needed to attempt decryption with each possible key
What the attacker must learn
- The correct key
The attack
Iterate over possible keys. For each key, starting with those most likely to be correct, attempt to decrypt the ciphertext and evaluate the result.
Further reading:
What the attacker knows
- The format and language of the target plaintext, i.e. ASCII-encoded English
- The mode of encryption: ECB
- The length and content of the target ciphertext
- The length and content of attacker-controlled plaintexts
- The length and content of ciphertexts derived from attacker-controlled plaintexts
What the attacker must learn
- The length of the key
- The number of bytes the encryption oracle prepends to the plaintext before encryption (the prefix)
- The length of the target plaintext
- The content of the target plaintext
The attack
Determine the length of the key KEYSIZE, the prefix length PREFIX_LEN and the length of the target plaintext P with repeated calls to the encryption oracle with incrementally larger chosen plaintexts.
For i in 0..LEN(P), perform a brute-force attack to recover the value of P[i]: For n in possible values 0u8..255u8, construct a plaintext comprising previously recovered bytes and n, encrypt the plaintext and add the resulting ciphertext to a lookup table. P[i] is equal to the n value corresponding to the ciphertext that matches C.
See also: Cryptographic attacks - Brute force, Cryptographic modes - ECB
Further reading:
- Byte by Byte ECB Decryption, Node Security, 2021
- Cryptopals Set 2 Challenge 12
- Cryptopals Set 2 Challenge 14
The cryptanalyst not only has access to the ciphertext and associated plaintext for several messages, but he also chooses the plaintext that gets encrypted. This is more powerful than a known-plaintext attack because the cryptanalyst can choose specific plaintext blocks to encrypt, ones that might yield more information about the key. His job is to deduce the key (or keys) used to encrypt the messages or an algorithm to decrypt any new messages encrypted with the same key (or keys).
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 6.
What the attacker knows
- The implementation details of MT19937
What the attacker must learn
- The first 624 numbers generated by the target instance of MT19937
- Subsequent numbers generated by the target instance of MT19937
The attack
Write a function that reverses MT19937's tempering function. Using the instance of MT19937 under attack, generate 624 random numbers and untemper them.
Instantiate a new MT19937 PRNG and set its internal state equal to the untempered 624 numbers.
See also: Mersenne Twister, Random-number generators
Further reading:
What the attacker knows
- The implementation details of MT19937
- The fact that PRNGs are often seeded with the current time
- The probable range of possible seed values
What the attacker must learn
- The seed value
The attack
Using the instance of MT19937 under attack, generate a random number note the current time c. For s, the most probable smallest possible seed value, to the current time c, instantiate a new MT19937 with the candidate seed and generate a random number. Determine whether the candidate seed is the original seed by comparing the random number to the original random number: If they are the same, the candidate seed is correct.
See also: Mersenne Twister, Random-number generators
Further reading:
What the attacker knows
- The format and language of the target plaintext, i.e. ASCII-encoded English
- The mode of encryption: ECB
- The length and content of attacker-controlled plaintexts
- The length and content of ciphertexts derived from attacker-controlled plaintexts
What the attacker must learn
- The bytes that must be substituted for a subset of the ciphertext such that decrypting the modified ciphertext produces the desired plaintext
See also: Cryptographic attacks - Chosen plaintext, Cryptographic modes - ECB
Further reading:
A cryptographic mode usually combines the basic cipher, some sort of feedback, and some simple operations. The operations are simple because the security is a function of the underlying cipher and not the mode. Even more strongly, the cipher mode should not compromise the security of the underlying algorithm.
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 189.
See also: Cipher
Chaining adds a feedback mechanism to a block cipher. The results of the encryption of previous blocks are fed back into the encryption of the current block. In other words, each block is used to modify the encryption of the next block. Each ciphertext block is dependent not just on the plaintext block that generated it but on all the previous plaintext blocks. In cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, the plaintext is XORed with the previous ciphertext block before it is encrypted. After a plaintext block is encrypted, the resulting ciphertext is also stored in a feedback register to become the next input to the encrypting routine. The resulting ciphertext is again stored in the feedback register, to be XORed with the next plaintext block and so on until the end of the message. The encryption of each block depends on all the previous blocks.
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 193.
Further reading:
Block ciphers in counter mode use sequence numbers as the input to the algorithm. Instead of using the output of the encryption algorithm to fill the register, the input to the register is a counter. After each block encryption, the counter increments by some constant, typically one.
Stream ciphers in counter mode have simple next-state functions and complicated output functions dependent on the key. ... The next-state function can be something as simple as a counter, adding one to the previous state.
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 205-206.
Further reading:
Electronic codebook (ECB) is the most obvious way to use a block cipher: A block of plaintext encrypts into a block of ciphertext. Since the text always encrypts to the same block of ciphertext, it is theoretically possible to create a code book of plaintexts and corresponding ciphertexts. However, if the block size is 64 bits, the code book will have 2 ** 64 entries -- much too large to pre-compute and store.
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 190.
Further reading:
A U.S. Government-approved cryptographic algorithm that can be used to protect electronic data. The AES algorithm is a symmetric block cipher that can encrypt (encipher) and decrypt (decipher) information.
"Advanced Encryption Standard". NIST Computer Security Resource Center Glossary. Accessed 12 February 2024.
Further reading:
Data Encryption Standard. Preceded AES.
Further reading:
A method used in cryptanalysis whereby the frequencies of letters occurring in a ciphertext are computed and compared to the frequencies typically occurring in English (or whatever language the plaintext is assumed to be).
Further reading:
- Frequency analysis, Wikipedia
- Letter frequency, Wikipedia
- Letters and Their Frequencies, StackOverflow
A measure of string similarity.
Further reading:
Given two strings of the same length, the number of substitutions required to transform one string into the other.
Further reading:
A positional number system using 16 as its base.
See also: Base16
Further reading:
- Strickland, Lloyd and Jones, Owain Daniel, F Things You (Probably) Didn't Know About Hexadecimal, The Mathematical Intelligencer 18 August 2022, Volume 45 pages 126-130 (2023). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00283-022-10206-w#Fn1.
See: Stream cipher
A random or non-repeating value that is included in data exchanged by a protocol, usually for the purpose of guaranteeing the transmittal of live data rather than replayed data, thus detecting and protecting against replay attacks.
"Nonce". NIST Computer Security Resource Center Glossary. Accessed 6 February 2024.
Defined by Alan Turing in 1938 as "some unspecified means of solving number theoretic problems".
Extending this definition to other problems commonly encountered in cryptography, we may define an encryption oracle as an unspecified means of encrypting data; a padding oracle as an unspecified means of learning whether an encrypted message has valid padding; and a random oracle as an unspecified means of producing a random number.
Further reading:
- Does a cryptographic oracle have to be a server?, StackOverflow
- Oracle machine, Wikipedia
- Turing, Alan. Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals (PDF)
Oftentimes messages are not an integer multiple of the block size and hence need to be padded. The padding is typically a map that takes the last partial block of the message ... and maps it into a full block ... The map needs to be invertible which in particular means that if the message is already an integer multiple of the block size we will need to add an extra block.
Boaz, Barak, An Intensive Introduction to Cryptography. Accessed 2 February 2024.
Further reading:
Some content-encryption algorithms assume the input length is a multiple of k octets, where k is greater than one. For such algorithms, the input shall be padded at the trailing end with k-(lth mod k) octets all having value k-(lth mod k), where lth is the length of the input. In other words, the input is padded at the trailing end with one of the following strings:
01 -- if lth mod k = k-1
02 02 -- if lth mod k = k-2
.
.
.
k k ... k k -- if lth mod k = 0
The padding can be removed unambiguously since all input is padded, including input values that are already a multiple of the block size, and no padding string is a suffix of another. This padding method is well defined if and only if k is less than 256.
Further reading:
Donald Knuth quotes John von Neumann as saying: "Anyone who considers arithmetical methods of producing random digits is, of course, in a state of sin." Computers are deterministic beasts: Stuff goes in one end, completely predictable operations occur inside, and different stuff comes out the other end. Put the same stuff in on two separate occasions and the same stuff comes out both times. Put the same stuff into two identical computers, and the same stuff comes out both of them. A computer can only be in a finite number of states (a large finite number, but a finite number nonetheless), and the stuff that comes out will always be a deterministic function of the stuff that went in and the computer's current state. That means that any random-number generator on a computer (at least, on a finite-state machine) is, by definition, periodic. Anything that is periodic is, by definition, predictable. And if something is predictable, it can't be random.
The best a computer can produce is a pseudo-random sequence generator. What's that? Many people have taken a stab at defining this formally, but I'll hand-wave here. ... For our purposes, a sequence generator is pseudo-random if it has this property:
1. It looks random. This means it passes all the statistical tests of randomness that we can find.
...
Cryptographic applications demand much more of a pseudo-random sequence generator than do most other applications. ... For a sequence to be cryptographically secure pseudo-random, it must also have this property:
2. It is unpredictable. It must be computationally infeasible to predict what the next random bit will be, given complete knowledge of the algorithm or hardware generating the sequence and all of the previous bits in the stream.
...
A sequence generator is real random if it has this additional third property:
3. It cannot be reliably reproduced. If you run the sequence generator twice with the exact same input (at least as exact as humanly possible), you will get two completely unrelated random sequences.
Schneier, Bruce, Applied Cryptography, Second Edition: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, (Indianapolis: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 44-46.
Further reading:
- Pseudorandom generator, Wikipedia
- PRNG, NIST Computer Security Resource Center
- Random number generation, Wikipedia
Pseudo-random number generator (PRNG) developed in 1997.
Further reading:
- Mersenne Twister, Wikipedia
- Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator (PDF)
- random, docs.python.org
- Random, ruby-doc.org
Polyalphabetic substitution cipher invented by Giovan Battista Bellaso in the 16th century, misattributed to Blaise de Vigenère.
Further reading:
Word - Any type that is size of a pointer. This corresponds to the width of the CPU's registers.
McNamara, Tim, Rust in Action, (New York: Manning Publications Co., 2021), 202.
Further reading: