Memory Aid: You are permitted to have one sheet (A4 or 8x11), double-sided, must be hand-written and hand-drawn
The examination is composed of four parts (2.5 hours total):
PART A. - 15 Multiple Choice Questions (2 marks each, total 30)
- Questions based on material since Midterm
PART B. - 5 Listing Questions (15 marks total)
- Questions based on material since Midterm
PART C. - 9 Short Answers (answer 7) (35 marks total) - if you do more than 7 only the first 7 will be graded (if you start a question and decide not to include it, put an X through it to make it clear you do not want it counted).
- Questions based on updated Learning Objectives pre-Midterm (those you are responsible for are highlighted) and all Learning Objectives since Midterm
PART D. - 1 Essay Question – see below. (20 marks, 35 minutes)
Note: the teaching team will not read over your essay, but we will answer specific questions about them.
One of these essay topics will be on the exam - preparing for them will also help you study for the entire exam:
Remember this is essay format so in paragraph format with a title, introduction, body, and conclusion. You should aim for approximately 600 words.
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**COVID-19: Explain the infection cycle of SARS CoV-2 in terms of virus entry into the cell, its replication, and release. Discuss how an overactive immune system (cytokine storm) impacts the respiratory system of the host. Discuss the benefits of vaccination. Distinguish between the Pfizer (mRNA) and Medicago (protein) vaccines. **
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**Biotechnology: A large proportion of transgenic crops have been genetically modified with genes from bacteria that protect the plant from insect attack. For Bt corn, describe the process by which plants are transformed (DNA stably incorporated into the plant nuclear genome) and explain the processes of transcription and translation that leads to the production of the insecticidal proteins. There is a lot of controversy over transgenic crops - do you think the benefits outweigh the drawbacks? Explain.
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Climate Change in the Boreal Forest: The Boreal forest (northern Canada) is predicted to be the biome that will experience the largest temperature increase in the world. This short reading that will help you with your essay: link Links to an external site..
The foodweb below represents interactions of a community in the Boreal Forest. Predict the ecological consequences of global climate change within this community. Include in your essay a description of the trophic relationships and how they will change due to climate change. Identify apex predator(s), keystone species, one r-strategist, and one k-strategist (explain why you have selected these organisms). Note: if this essay is selected the foodweb will be included.
DNA is made of ACGT:
- adenine
- cytosine
- guanine
- thymine
RNA is made of ACGU:
- adenine
- cytosine
- guanine
- uracil
Week 1/2:
- Distinguish between climate and weather
- Climate refers to the average weather conditions in a particular location over a long period of time, typically 30 years or more.
- Weather refers to the conditions of the atmosphere at a specific place and time.
- Predict consequences of climate change.
- Extreme weather events: Climate change can lead to an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as heatwaves, droughts, floods, and hurricanes.
- Sea level rise: As the Earth's temperature increases, the polar ice caps and glaciers melt, causing sea levels to rise. This can lead to coastal flooding and erosion, and can threaten low-lying islands and coastal communities.
- Loss of biodiversity: Climate change can alter habitats and disrupt the relationships between species, leading to the loss of biodiversity. This can have cascading effects on ecosystems and the services they provide, such as pollination and water filtration.
- Explain the relationship between the carbon cycle and photosynthesis.
- Photosynthesis plays a central role in the carbon cycle because it is the primary source of new organic matter on Earth. When plants and other photosynthetic organisms use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen, they remove carbon from the atmosphere and store it as organic matter. This process is known as carbon sequestration, and it helps to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
- Describe the importance of photosynthesis to life on Earth.
- Primary source of new organic matter on Earth.
- Plays a central role in the carbon cycle as carbon in the environment is exchanged for oxygen and other organic matter
- Explain phenology using examples of a number of different organisms (plants, birds, etc).
- Phenology is the study of the timing of biological events, such as the flowering of plants, the migration of birds, and the emergence of insects. These events are often linked to changes in the environment, such as the seasons, weather patterns, and the availability of resources.
- Plants: The flowering of plants is a common example of a phenological event. The timing of flowering can vary depending on the species of plant and the local climate, and it is often linked to changes in temperature and daylight hours.
- For example, some plants may flower earlier in the spring if they experience warmer temperatures or longer days.
- Birds: The migration of birds is another example of a phenological event. Many bird species migrate to different locations at different times of the year in response to changes in the availability of food and other resources.
- For example, some birds may migrate to warmer climates in the winter to avoid freezing temperatures and limited food supplies.
- Insects: The emergence of insects is another example of a phenological event. Many insect species have specific times of the year when they emerge from their eggs or pupae, and these times can be influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture, and the availability of food.
- For example, some insects may emerge earlier in the spring if they experience warmer temperatures or higher levels of moisture.
- Plants: The flowering of plants is a common example of a phenological event. The timing of flowering can vary depending on the species of plant and the local climate, and it is often linked to changes in temperature and daylight hours.
- Phenology is the study of the timing of biological events, such as the flowering of plants, the migration of birds, and the emergence of insects. These events are often linked to changes in the environment, such as the seasons, weather patterns, and the availability of resources.
- Apply an appropriate species name to an organism. Identify the genus and specific epithet.
- For example, if we were to apply a species name to a lion, we would first identify the genus to which it belongs. Lions belong to the genus Panthera, so the first part of the species name would be Panthera. The second part of the species name is the specific epithet, which is used to distinguish the species within the genus. Lions belong to the species Panthera leo, so the specific epithet for a lion would be leo. Thus, the complete scientific name for a lion would be Panthera leo.
- For example, the scientific name for a tiger, which is also in the genus Panthera, is Panthera tigris. This naming system helps to provide a consistent and standardized way of referring to different species of organisms.
Week 3:
- Describe the defining features of a cell.
- Membrane: The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin, flexible layer that surrounds the cell and separates the inside from the outside. It is made up of a phospholipid bilayer that contains proteins and other molecules, and it plays a crucial role in regulating the exchange of materials between the cell and its environment.
- Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the gel-like substance that fills the cell and contains the cell's organelles and other cellular structures. It is composed mostly of water, but it also contains a variety of dissolved substances, including ions, sugars, and amino acids.
- Organelles: Cells contain a variety of specialized organelles, which are small, membrane-bound structures that have specific functions within the cell. Some examples of organelles include the nucleus, which contains the cell's genetic material; the mitochondria, which produce the cell's energy; and the ribosomes, which are involved in protein synthesis.
- Genetic material: Cells contain genetic material, which is the information that encodes the instructions for the cell's function and reproduction. In most cells, this genetic material is contained within the nucleus and is organized into chromosomes.
- Compare and contrast the basic features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
- Size and shape: Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and simpler in structure than eukaryotic cells. They are typically spherical or rod-shaped, while eukaryotic cells can have a wide range of shapes and sizes.
- Nucleus: Prokaryotic cells do not have a defined nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have a defined nucleus that contains the cell's genetic material. In prokaryotic cells, the genetic material is dispersed throughout the cytoplasm, while in eukaryotic cells, it is contained within the nucleus.
- Membrane-bound organelles: Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a variety of specialized organelles, such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and lysosomes. These organelles are important for carrying out the cell's functions.
- Describe the general features of eukaryotic cells.
- Size and shape: Eukaryotic cells can vary in size and shape, depending on the organism and the tissue they are found in. They are typically larger than prokaryotic cells, with some eukaryotic cells reaching sizes of several micrometers in diameter. Eukaryotic cells can also have a wide range of shapes, from elongated and cylindrical cells to flattened and disk-shaped cells.
- Nucleus: One of the defining features of eukaryotic cells is the presence of a defined nucleus. The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's genetic material, which is organized into chromosomes. The nucleus is important for controlling the cell's growth and reproduction, and for regulating the expression of the cell's genes.
- Membrane-bound organelles: Eukaryotic cells contain a variety of membrane-bound organelles, which are small, specialized structures that have specific functions within the cell. Some examples of organelles found in eukaryotic cells include mitochondria, which produce the cell's energy; chloroplasts, which carry out photosynthesis in plant cells; and lysosomes, which digest waste materials and foreign particles.
- Describe the endomembrane system.
- The endomembrane system is a network of membrane-bound structures and vesicles within eukaryotic cells that is involved in the synthesis, transport, and degradation of proteins and lipids. The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, and the endosomes and lysosomes.
- The nuclear envelope is a double-membraned structure that surrounds the nucleus and separates it from the cytoplasm. The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which is a network of flattened sacs and tubules that are involved in the synthesis and modification of proteins and lipids.
- The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened membrane-bound sacs that is located near the ER. It is involved in the sorting, modification, and packaging of proteins and lipids into vesicles for transport to other parts of the cell or for secretion outside of the cell.
- Endosomes and lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles that are involved in the degradation of proteins and other molecules. Endosomes are formed from the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane, and they are involved in the endocytosis of materials into the cell. Lysosomes are formed from the Golgi apparatus, and they contain hydrolytic enzymes that break down proteins, lipids, and other molecules.
- Distinguish between plastids and mitochondria.
- Plastids are involved in the synthesis and storage of pigments and other organic molecules
- Mitochondria are involved in the production of energy in the form of ATP.
- Describe the theory of endosymbiosis and the evidence that supports it.
- The theory of endosymbiosis is a scientific hypothesis that explains the origin of certain organelles found in eukaryotic cells, such as mitochondria and plastids. The theory proposes that these organelles were once free-living organisms that were engulfed by a larger host cell, and that over time, they became integrated into the host cell and developed a symbiotic relationship with it.
- Evidence: There are several lines of evidence that support the theory of endosymbiosis. One piece of evidence is the similarity between organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, and the membranes of prokaryotic cells such as bacteria. This similarity suggests that these organelles may have originated from prokaryotic cells.
Week 4:
- Define: cell type, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism. Be able to identify these in both plants and animals.
- A cell type is a group of cells that are similar in structure and function. Examples of cell types include nerve cells, muscle cells, and blood cells.
- A tissue is a group of cells that are specialized for a specific function, and that are organized together to perform a specific task. Examples of tissues include muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and epithelial tissue.
- An organ is a group of tissues that are organized together to perform a specific function. Examples of organs include the heart, liver, and kidneys.
- An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform a specific function. Examples of organ systems include the digestive system, the respiratory system, and the circulatory system.
- An organism is a living being that is made up of one or more cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Examples of organisms include plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria.
- Examples in plants and animals:
- In plants, some examples of cell types include parenchyma cells, which are involved in photosynthesis and storage, and collenchyma cells, which provide support. Some examples of tissues in plants include vascular tissue, which transports water and nutrients, and dermal tissue, which covers and protects the plant. Examples of organs in plants include leaves, stems, and roots. The organ systems of plants include the root system, the vascular system, and the shoot system.
- In animals, some examples of cell types include nerve cells, which transmit electrical signals, and muscle cells, which contract to produce movement. Some examples of tissues in animals include connective tissue, which provides support and protection, and epithelial tissue, which covers the body and forms the linings of organs. Examples of organs in animals include the brain, the lungs, and the heart. The organ systems of animals include the nervous system, the respiratory system, and the circulatory system.
- Explain convergence and divergence and give examples of each in plants and in animals.
- Convergence and divergence are two processes that can occur in the evolution of organisms.
- Convergence occurs when unrelated species or groups of organisms evolve similar traits or characteristics as a result of adapting to similar environments or ecological niches.
- Divergence, on the other hand, occurs when a single species or group of organisms splits into two or more distinct lineages that evolve different traits or characteristics.
- Examples of convergence and divergence in plants and animals:
- Plants:
- One example of convergence in plants is the evolution of cacti and succulents. These plants have evolved thick, water-storing stems and leaves as a way to adapt to arid environments. This convergence of traits has allowed cacti and succulents to survive in similar environments, even though they are not closely related.
- An example of divergence in plants is the evolution of flowering plants and non-flowering plants, such as ferns and mosses. Flowering plants evolved from a common ancestor that split into two lineages, one of which gave rise to flowering plants and the other to non-flowering plants. As a result of this divergence, flowering plants and non-flowering plants have evolved different characteristics, such as the ability to reproduce sexually in flowering plants and the ability to reproduce asexually in non-flowering plants.
- Animals:
- Another example of convergence in animals is the evolution of flight in birds, bats, and insects. These unrelated groups of animals have evolved the ability to fly as a way to access new sources of food or to avoid predators. Despite their different origins, birds, bats, and insects have all evolved similar structures for flight, such as wings and lightweight skeletons.
- One example of divergence in animals is the evolution of mammals and reptiles. These two groups of animals evolved from a common ancestor that split into two distinct lineages. Over time, these lineages diverged and evolved different characteristics, such as the ability to maintain a constant body temperature in mammals and the ability to lay eggs in reptiles. As a result of this divergence, mammals and reptiles have evolved into two very different groups of animals, with different modes of reproduction, metabolism, and behavior.
- Plants:
- Understand how structure relates to function (and vice versa) in plants and animals, and how these relationships are influenced by their environment.
- Plants:
- In plants, the structure of an organism is closely related to its function.
- For example, the roots of a plant are structured in a way that allows them to anchor the plant in the ground and to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. The leaves of a plant are structured in a way that allows them to capture sunlight and to carry out photosynthesis.
- The structure of plants is also influenced by their environment.
- For example, plants that grow in dry environments may have evolved thick, waxy leaves to conserve water, while plants that grow in cold environments may have evolved thick, insulating coats of hair or bark to protect them from the cold.
- In plants, the structure of an organism is closely related to its function.
- Animals:
- For example, the wings of a bird are structured in a way that allows the bird to fly, and the legs of a cheetah are structured in a way that allows the cheetah to run quickly.
- The structure of animals is also influenced by their environment.
- For example, animals that live in cold environments may have evolved thick fur or blubber to insulate them from the cold, while animals that live in water may have evolved streamlined bodies and fins or flippers to help them swim.
- Plants:
- Explain how smallpox was eradicated.
- First, vaccination was used to prevent people from getting smallpox. The vaccine was made from a related virus called vaccinia, and it provided immunity against smallpox.
- Second, surveillance was used to identify and isolate cases of smallpox as they occurred. This involved monitoring the population for signs of the disease, and quickly isolating and treating people who had smallpox.
- Third, containment was used to prevent the spread of smallpox from one person to another. This involved quarantining infected individuals, and implementing strict infection control measures to prevent the spread of the disease.
Week 5:
- Define transcription and the role of ribosomes.
- Transcription
- is the process by which the information in a gene is used to synthesize a complementary RNA molecule. This process is carried out by enzymes called RNA polymerases, which read the genetic information encoded in DNA and use it to synthesize a strand of RNA.
- Ribosomes
- are the cellular structures that play a key role in protein synthesis. They are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins, and are responsible for decoding the information in RNA molecules and using it to synthesize proteins. In other words, ribosomes are the "workhorses" of protein synthesis, as they are responsible for translating the genetic information in RNA into the specific sequence of amino acids that make up a protein.
- Transcription
- Differentiate between mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA.
- mRNA (messenger RNA)
- type of RNA that carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where it is used to synthesize proteins. mRNA is transcribed from DNA in the nucleus, and then transported to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where it is read and used to synthesize proteins.
- rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
- type of RNA that is a key component of ribosomes. rRNA plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, as it is responsible for decoding the genetic information in mRNA and using it to synthesize proteins.
- tRNA (transfer RNA)
- type of RNA that functions as an adapter molecule during protein synthesis.
- tRNA molecules have a specific sequence of nucleotides that is complementary to the sequence of nucleotides in an mRNA molecule.
- When a ribosome reads an mRNA molecule, it uses the complementary sequence in the tRNA molecule to "translate" the genetic code into the specific sequence of amino acids that make up a protein.
- mRNA (messenger RNA)
- Describe the stages of translation.
- Initiation:
- In this stage, a small subunit of the ribosome binds to the mRNA molecule and recognizes the start codon, which signals the beginning of the protein-coding sequence.
- Elongation:
- In this stage, the ribosome moves along the mRNA molecule, reading the genetic code in groups of three nucleotides called codons. As it reads each codon, it uses the complementary sequence in a tRNA molecule to "translate" the code into the corresponding amino acid. These amino acids are then joined together to form a growing protein chain.
- Termination:
- In this stage, the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA molecule, which signals the end of the protein-coding sequence. The ribosome then releases the completed protein and dissociates into its subunits.
- Initiation:
- Define epigenetics. Identify different means of chromosome modifications in epigenetic regulation of gene expression.
- Epigenetics refers to the study of heritable changes in gene expression (rather than gene modification) that are not caused by changes to the underlying DNA sequence. These changes can be caused by a variety of factors, including environmental influences and modifications to the structure of DNA and its associated proteins.
- There are several different means of modifying chromosomes in order to regulate gene expression in an epigenetic manner. These include:
- DNA methylation: In this process, chemical groups called methyl groups are added to the DNA molecule, typically at the CpG dinucleotide (a nucleotide sequence consisting of a cytosine and a guanine nucleotide). This can affect gene expression by blocking the binding of transcription factors to the DNA, preventing the gene from being transcribed into RNA.
- Histone modification: In this process, chemical groups are added to the histone proteins that DNA is wrapped around in the nucleus. This can affect gene expression by changing the structure of the chromatin, making it more or less accessible to transcription factors.
- Chromatin remodeling: In this process, enzymes called chromatin remodelers can change the structure of chromatin, making it more or less accessible to transcription factors. This can affect gene expression by making it easier or harder for genes to be transcribed into RNA.
- Explain where in the infection cycle of SARS CoV-2 RNA replication and translation takes place.
- The infection cycle of SARS-CoV-2 begins when the virus attaches to and enters a host cell.
- Once inside the host cell, the virus manipulates host cellular machinery and ribosomes to synthesize its own proteins using its own RNA.
- This process of translation, in which the genetic information in RNA is used to synthesize proteins, also takes place within the host cell's cytoplasm.
- The newly synthesized viral proteins are then assembled into new virus particles, which are then released from the host cell to infect other cells.
- Explain the roles of the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi in the infection cycle of SARS CoV-2.
- During the infection cycle of SARS-CoV-2, the viral proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm are transported to the ER, where they are folded and modified into their final functional form.
- The Golgi apparatus is another membrane-bound organelle that is involved in the modification, sorting, and packaging of proteins. After the viral proteins have been modified in the ER, they are transported to the Golgi, where they are sorted into vesicles and transported to the site of virus assembly.
- Discuss the two stage defence (immune) system of the host.
- Innate immune system
- The first line of defense against infection and is composed of a variety of cells, tissues, and molecules that are present at all times in the body.
- The innate immune system provides a rapid and non-specific response to invaders, and is activated as soon as an invader enters the body.
- Examples of innate immune defenses include physical barriers like the skin and mucous membranes, as well as chemical defenses like antimicrobial peptides and interferons.
- Adaptive immune system
- Second line of defense against infection and is composed of specialized immune cells and proteins that are able to recognize and remember specific invaders.
- The adaptive immune system provides a slower but more targeted response to invaders, and is activated after the innate immune system has failed to contain an infection.
- Examples of adaptive immune defenses include T and B cells, which are able to recognize and destroy infected cells, and antibodies, which are able to neutralize invaders and prevent them from causing harm.
- Innate immune system
- Explain the basic principle behind vaccines. Based on what you know about the impact of SARS CoV-2 on immune system, how do vaccines prevent major illness?
- The basic principle behind vaccines is to introduce a harmless version of a disease-causing agent into the body, so that the immune system can develop immunity to the disease.
- This is typically done by administering a weakened or inactivated form of the disease-causing agent, such as a virus or bacteria, which triggers the immune system to produce antibodies and other immune cells that can recognize and destroy the invader.
- In the case of SARS-CoV-2, vaccines work by introducing a harmless version of the virus into the body, which triggers the immune system to produce antibodies and other immune cells that can recognize and destroy the virus.
- This means that if an individual is exposed to the real virus in the future, their immune system will be able to quickly and effectively neutralize the virus and prevent it from causing major illness.
- In other words, vaccines work by priming the immune system to recognize and destroy the disease-causing agent, so that if the individual is exposed to the real disease in the future, their immune system is already prepared to fight it off and prevent major illness.
Week 6:
- Explain what an adaptation is.
- An adaptation is a characteristic or trait that has evolved in a species over time in order to increase its chances of survival and reproduction.
- Adaptations can take many different forms, including physical, behavioral, and physiological traits, and can be the result of natural selection or other evolutionary processes.
- Define and explain the link between genotypic variation and phenotypic variation
- Genotypic variation
- refers to the differences in the genetic makeup of individuals within a population.
- These differences can arise from mutations, recombination, and other processes that result in variation in the DNA sequence of an organism.
- Phenotypic variation
- refers to the differences in the observable characteristics of individuals within a population.
- These differences can be the result of both genotypic and environmental factors, and can include physical traits like height, color, and shape, as well as behavioral and physiological traits like behavior and metabolism.
- Connection
- The link between genotypic and phenotypic variation is that genotypic variation is the source of the variation in the DNA sequence that underlies the development of an organism's observable characteristics. In other words, genotypic variation is the source of the genetic variation that leads to the development of different phenotypes in a population.
- For example, a mutation in a gene that codes for a particular protein may result in a change in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which in turn may cause a change in the protein's function and the development of a different observable characteristic. This is how genotypic variation can lead to phenotypic variation within a population.
- The link between genotypic and phenotypic variation is that genotypic variation is the source of the variation in the DNA sequence that underlies the development of an organism's observable characteristics. In other words, genotypic variation is the source of the genetic variation that leads to the development of different phenotypes in a population.
- Genotypic variation
- Define the following: mutation, divergent selection, disruptive selection, hybridization, and ring species.
- Mutation:
- Change in the DNA sequence of an organism that can be inherited by its offspring.
- Mutations can arise from a variety of causes, including errors in DNA replication, exposure to mutagenic agents, and damage from radiation or other environmental factors.
- Mutations can have a range of effects on the organism, from being neutral to being beneficial, harmful, or lethal.
- Divergent selection:
- type of natural selection in which individuals with extreme phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with intermediate phenotypes.
- This can result in the evolution of two or more distinct forms within a population, each adapted to a different set of environmental conditions.
- TLDR: natural selection favors extreme observable traits in a population.
- Disruptive selection:
- type of natural selection in which individuals with extreme phenotypes are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with intermediate phenotypes.
- This can result in the evolution of two or more distinct forms within a population, each adapted to a different range of environmental conditions.
- Hybridization:
- process by which two different species or varieties of organisms mate and produce offspring.
- This can result in the creation of a hybrid, which has characteristics of both parent organisms.
- Hybridization can occur naturally or be induced by human intervention, and can have a range of effects on the genetic makeup and fitness of the resulting hybrid.
- For example, a Mule (hybrid between donkey and horse)
- Ring species:
- group of closely related species that are distributed in a circular pattern around a geographic barrier, such that neighboring species can interbreed with one another but the outermost species cannot.
- This can result in a gradual change in the genetic makeup of the population as it moves around the circle, such that the outermost species are genetically distinct from the others and cannot interbreed with them.
- Mutation:
- Explain the difference between positive and negative feedback.
- Positive feedback
- to increase change or output
- refers to a process in which a change in a particular direction leads to further changes in the same direction.
- Positive feedback can amplify small changes and can result in rapid and dramatic shifts in the state of a system.
- For example, in human physiology, the process of childbirth is an example of positive feedback. As the baby begins to move down the birth canal, this stimulates the production of the hormone oxytocin, which in turn stimulates the uterus to contract more strongly. This further increases the descent of the baby, which stimulates the production of more oxytocin, and so on. This positive feedback loop can result in the rapid and coordinated progress of labor, leading to the birth of the baby.
- Negative feedback
- to reduce change or output
- refers to a process in which a change in a particular direction leads to a response that counteracts or reverses the change.
- Negative feedback can help to maintain stability and homeostasis within a system.
- For example, in human physiology, the process of temperature regulation is an example of negative feedback. When the body gets too hot, the hypothalamus in the brain sends a signal to the blood vessels in the skin to dilate, increasing heat loss through the skin. This lowers the body temperature, which in turn reduces the signal from the hypothalamus, leading to constriction of the blood vessels and less heat loss. This negative feedback loop helps to maintain the body's core temperature within a narrow, healthy range.
- Positive feedback
Week 7:
- Define ecology
- Ecology is the study of the interactions between living organisms and their environment.
- This includes the relationships between different species, as well as the relationships between organisms and the physical, chemical, and biological factors that make up their environment.
- Define the following: abiotic, biotic, population, community, ecosystem, and emergent properties.
- Abiotic:
- refers to the non-living components of an ecosystem, such as climate, soil, water, and sunlight.
- Abiotic factors play a key role in shaping the environment and determining the types of organisms that can survive and thrive in a particular location.
- Biotic:
- refers to the living components of an ecosystem, such as plants, animals, and microorganisms.
- Biotic factors interact with each other and with the abiotic factors in the environment, and can affect the distribution, abundance, and behavior of species within an ecosystem.
- Population:
- group of individuals of the same species that live and interact with each other within a particular area.
- Populations can vary in size, density, and composition, and are a key unit of study in ecology.
- Community:
- group of populations of different species that live and interact with each other within a particular area.
- Communities can be characterized by their species composition, the relationships between the species, and the roles that each species plays in the ecosystem.
- Ecosystem:
- An ecosystem is a dynamic and complex network of interactions between the living and non-living components of an environment.
- Ecosystems can range in size from a small pond to a large forest, and can be characterized by their abiotic and biotic components, their energy and nutrient flows, and the roles that different species play in the ecosystem.
- Emergent properties:
- characteristic an entity gains when it becomes part of a bigger system.
- Emergent properties help living organisms better adapt to their environments and increase their chances of survival.
- For example, birds migrating in groups.
- Abiotic:
- Review the different types of symbioses in terms of cost and benefits of each interaction - provide an example of each.
- Mutualism:
- type of symbiotic interaction in which both species benefit from the interaction.
- For example, the relationship between flowering plants and pollinators like bees is a mutualistic interaction, as the plants benefit from the pollinators spreading their pollen, and the pollinators benefit from the nectar and pollen provided by the plants.
- Commensalism:
- type of symbiotic interaction in which one species benefits from the interaction, while the other is neither harmed nor benefited.
- For example, the relationship between a bird and a tree is a commensalistic interaction, as the bird benefits from the shelter provided by the tree, while the tree is neither harmed nor benefited by the presence of the bird.
- Parasitism:
- type of symbiotic interaction in which one species (the parasite) benefits from the interaction, while the other species (the host) is harmed.
- For example, the relationship between a tick and a mammal is a parasitic interaction, as the tick benefits from the blood provided by the mammal, while the mammal is harmed by the tick's feeding.
- Amensalism:
- type of symbiotic interaction in which one species is harmed by the interaction, while the other is neither harmed nor benefited.
- For example, the relationship between a tree and a weed is an amensalistic interaction, as the weed is harmed by the tree's shade,
- Mutualism:
- Define population explosions and population crashes, and give examples of these from history.
- Population explosion:
- rapid increase in the size of a population over a relatively short period of time.
- This can occur when the population is not limited by factors such as food availability, predation, or disease, and can result in an overabundance of individuals within a particular area.
- Example from history:
- The population explosion of rabbits in Australia in the 19th century, which was the result of the introduction of European rabbits to the continent.
- The rabbits had few natural predators and were able to reproduce rapidly, leading to an overabundance of rabbits and significant damage to the environment.
- Population crash:
- rapid decrease in the size of a population over a relatively short period of time.
- This can occur when the population is limited by factors such as food availability, predation, or disease, and can result in a sharp decline in the number of individuals within a particular area.
- Example from history:
- The population crash of passenger pigeons in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which was the result of overhunting and habitat destruction.
- The passenger pigeon was once the most abundant bird in North America, with a population estimated at several billion individuals.
- However, due to overhunting and habitat loss, the population declined rapidly and the last known passenger pigeon died in captivity in 1914.
- Population explosion:
- Define ecological footprint, carbon footprint and biocapacity
- Ecological footprint:
- Measure of the impact of human activities on the natural environment.
- It is calculated by taking into account the amount of land and water required to produce the resources that people use, as well as the amount of waste and pollution generated by human activities.
- The ecological footprint provides a way of comparing the sustainability of different human activities and lifestyles, and can be used to assess the extent to which human activities are within the carrying capacity of the planet.
- Carbon footprint:
- Measure of the impact of human activities on the climate, in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere.
- It is calculated by taking into account the emissions from the burning of fossil fuels, as well as the emissions from other human activities such as deforestation and agriculture.
- The carbon footprint provides a way of comparing the climate impact of different human activities and lifestyles, and can be used to assess the extent to which human activities are contributing to climate change.
- Biocapacity:
- Measure of the ability of the natural environment to produce resources and absorb waste and pollution.
- It is calculated by taking into account the productivity of the land and oceans, as well as the ability of ecosystems to regenerate and provide services such as clean air and water.
- Biocapacity provides a way of comparing the sustainability of different human activities and lifestyles, and can be used to assess the extent to which human activities are within the carrying capacity of the planet.
- Ecological footprint:
- What are the main factors that produce physiological responses to climate change?
- The main factors that produce physiological responses to climate change are changes in temperature, precipitation, and other environmental conditions.
- These changes can affect the physiological processes of individual organisms, leading to a range of responses including changes in metabolism, growth, reproduction, and behavior.
- For example, an increase in temperature can result in an increase in the metabolic rate of an organism, leading to an increased demand for food and water. This can affect the organism's ability to grow and reproduce, and can also affect its behavior, such as by altering its activity patterns or migration behavior.
- Describe population responses to climate change
Week 8
- Discuss local (within British Columbia) consequences of the heat dome of 2021 to terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
- For a rocky shoreline identify five factors that determine community structure.
- Physical factors:
- The physical characteristics of a rocky shoreline, such as its exposure to waves, currents, and tides, can have a major impact on the types of organisms that are able to live there.
- For example, a rocky shoreline that is exposed to strong waves may only support hardy species that are able to withstand the rough conditions.
- Temperature:
- The temperature of the water and air can also affect the types of organisms that are able to survive on a rocky shoreline.
- For example, cold water species may only be found on rocky shorelines in cooler regions, while warm water species may only be found in warmer areas.
- Nutrient availability:
- The availability of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, can also influence the structure of a rocky shoreline community.
- Areas with high levels of nutrients may support more diverse and productive communities, while areas with low nutrient levels may be less diverse.
- Competition:
- The presence of other species can also affect the structure of a rocky shoreline community.
- For example, species that are able to outcompete others for resources may be more successful in a given area, while less competitive species may be excluded.
- Disturbance:
- Disturbances such as storms and human activities can also influence the structure of a rocky shoreline community.
- For example, a storm may destroy parts of a rocky shoreline, leading to changes in the species that are able to survive there. Human activities such as fishing and pollution can also affect the structure of a rocky shoreline community.
- Physical factors:
- Distinguish between population ecology, community ecology and ecosystem ecology.
- Population ecology:
- study of how populations of individual species interact and change over time.
- This includes factors such as population size, growth rates, and the factors that influence these characteristics.
- Community ecology:
- study of how different populations of species interact with each other within a given area.
- This includes studying the relationships between species, such as competition, predation, and mutualism, and how these interactions affect the structure and function of the community.
- Ecosystem ecology:
- study of the interactions between organisms and their physical environment.
- This includes studying the flow of energy and matter through an ecosystem, as well as the processes that regulate the abundance and distribution of organisms within the ecosystem.
- Population ecology:
- Describe different trophic relationships within a community and be able to illustrate them in a food web.
- Trophic relationships refer to the feeding relationships between different species within an ecosystem. There are several different types of trophic relationships, including:
- Predator-prey relationships:
- In this type of relationship, one species (the predator) feeds on another species (the prey).
- For example, a lion may prey on a gazelle.
- Parasitism:
- In this type of relationship, one species (the parasite) feeds on another species (the host), but the host is not killed.
- For example, a tick may feed on the blood of a deer.
- Mutualism:
- In this type of relationship, two species interact with each other and both benefit from the interaction.
- For example, a bee and a flower may have a mutualistic relationship, with the bee collecting nectar from the flower and the flower receiving pollen from the bee.
- Commensalism:
- In this type of relationship, one species (the commensal) benefits from the relationship, while the other species (the host) is not affected.
- For example, a barnacle may attach itself to the hull of a ship and feed on the plankton in the water, while the ship is not affected by the barnacle.
- Predator-prey relationships:
- These trophic relationships can be illustrated in a food web, which is a diagram that shows the feeding relationships between different species within an ecosystem.
- In a food web, each species is represented by a node, and the lines connecting the nodes represent the feeding relationships between the species.
- For example, a food web may show that deer are eaten by wolves, which are in turn eaten by bears.
- Trophic relationships refer to the feeding relationships between different species within an ecosystem. There are several different types of trophic relationships, including:
- Define trophic pyramid, apex predator, trophic cascade, top-down control, bottom-up control, and keystone species, and provide examples of each and how they influence community structure and dynamics.
- Trophic pyramid:
- graphical representation of the relationships between various species in a food chain, with each level representing a different trophic level.
- At the bottom of the pyramid are the producers, which are typically plants that convert sunlight into energy through photosynthesis.
- Above the producers are the primary consumers, which are herbivores that feed on plants.
- Higher up the pyramid are the secondary consumers, which are carnivores that feed on primary consumers, and so on.
- Apex predator:
- species at the top of the trophic pyramid, meaning that it is not preyed upon by any other species.
- Examples of apex predators include lions, wolves, and sharks.
- Trophic cascade:
- series of changes that occur in an ecosystem as a result of changes in the abundance or behavior of a predator species.
- For example, if the population of a predatory fish species declines, the population of the species that it preys upon may increase, leading to a cascading effect on the ecosystem.
- Top-down control:
- type of ecosystem regulation in which predators control the abundance and behavior of their prey species.
- This can have a cascading effect on the rest of the ecosystem, as changes in predator populations can affect the populations of other species.
- Bottom-up control:
- type of ecosystem regulation in which the availability of resources such as food and nutrients determines the abundance and behavior of species in an ecosystem.
- For example, in a terrestrial ecosystem, the availability of sunlight and water can affect the growth of plants, which in turn can affect the abundance of herbivores and other species.
- Keystone species:
- species that plays a critical role in the functioning of an ecosystem and has a disproportionate effect on the abundance and distribution of other species.
- For example, in a marine ecosystem, sea otters are a keystone species because they play a critical role in controlling the population of sea urchins, which can have a cascading effect on the rest of the ecosystem.
- Trophic pyramid:
- Discuss the relationship between niche and competition.
- A niche is the unique role and position that a species occupies in an ecosystem, including its interactions with other species and its physical environment.
- Competition is a process in which two or more organisms or groups of organisms compete for limited resources, such as food, space, or mates.
- The more similar the niches of two species are, the more likely they are to compete with each other for resources.
- For example, two species of birds that both feed on insects and live in the same forest may compete for access to the same food sources.
- On the other hand, two species that occupy different niches in the same ecosystem may not compete with each other at all.
- For example, a bird that feeds on insects and a bird that feeds on fruit may live in the same forest but do not compete with each other for food.
- Define competitive-exclusion principle and give an example from your ecosystem of choice.
- Competitive-exclusion principle:
- states that two species cannot coexist indefinitely in the same environment if they have the same ecological niche.
- In other words, if two species are competing for the same resources, one species will eventually outcompete the other and drive it to extinction.
- Example of the competitive-exclusion principle can be seen in the interactions between two species of lizards that live in the same desert ecosystem.
- If the two species have similar diets and habitats, they will compete for the same food and shelter, and one species will eventually outcompete the other.
- Competitive-exclusion principle:
- Identify two different types of disturbance and explain their impact in the ecosystems they occur.
- Natural disasters:
- such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and wildfires, can have significant impacts on ecosystems.
- These disturbances can cause damage to physical structures, such as trees and buildings, and can alter the distribution and abundance of species in the ecosystem.
- For example, a wildfire can destroy the habitats of many species, leading to a decrease in their populations, and can also create new habitats for other species.
- Human activities:
- such as logging, farming, and urbanization, can also have significant impacts on ecosystems.
- These disturbances can alter the physical environment, such as by changing the availability of resources or creating new habitats, and can also affect the behavior and interactions of species in the ecosystem.
- For example, the construction of a new road can fragment a forest ecosystem, leading to changes in the distribution and abundance of species, and can also affect the movement and behavior of species that live in the area.
- Natural disasters:
- Describe primary and secondary succession and provide a detailed example of each.
- Primary succession:
- occurs in environments where there was previously no vegetation, such as on a newly formed volcanic island or a recently created sand dune.
- such as lichens and mosses, are the first to colonize a barren area.
- These species are able to survive in harsh conditions and begin to break down rocks and form soil.
- Over time, more complex plant species, such as grasses and shrubs, can establish themselves and create a more diverse community.
- Eventually, a climax community, such as a forest, may develop, reaching a stable state in which the species composition remains relatively constant over time.
- An example of primary succession is the colonization of a newly formed volcanic island. At first, only a few hardy species, such as lichens and mosses, are able to survive on the bare rock. Over time, these species break down the rocks and create soil, allowing more complex plants, such as grasses and shrubs, to establish themselves. Eventually, a forest may develop, reaching a stable state in which the species composition remains relatively constant.
- Secondary succession:
- occurs in environments where vegetation has been disturbed or removed, such as after a forest fire or a clear-cut logging operation.
- In these cases, the soil and other resources are already present, allowing for a faster rate of succession.
- Pioneer species, such as annual grasses, quickly colonize the area and begin to stabilize the soil.
- Over time, more complex plant species, such as shrubs and trees, can establish themselves and create a more diverse community.
- Eventually, the ecosystem may return to its original climax state, or a new stable state may be reached.
- An example of secondary succession is the regrowth of a forest after a fire. After the fire has passed, annual grasses and other pioneer species quickly colonize the area and begin to stabilize the soil. Over time, shrubs and trees can reestablish themselves and the ecosystem begins to return to its original state. Eventually, the forest reaches a new stable state, with a species composition that may be slightly different from the original forest.
- Primary succession:
- Explain what a climax community is why it may not occur in all communities.
- Climax community:
- final stage of succession, in which the species composition of an ecological community becomes relatively stable and remains constant over time.
- characterized by the presence of a diverse array of species, each of which plays a specific role in the ecosystem and contributes to its overall functioning.
- The concept of a climax community was first proposed by the ecologist Frederic Clements, who suggested that all ecosystems progress through a series of stages, from pioneer species to a mature, stable community.
- Why it may no occur in all communities?:
- In some cases, external factors, such as changes in climate or the introduction of new species, may prevent a community from reaching a stable state.
- Additionally, some communities, such as tidal marshes and sand dunes, may exist in a state of constant change, with the species composition constantly shifting in response to external factors.
- In these cases, the concept of a climax community may not be applicable.
- Climax community:
- Distinguish between introduced and invasive species and their impact on natural ecosystems.
- Introduced species:
- also known as non-native or exotic species, are species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced to a new environment where they did not previously exist.
- These species can have a range of impacts on the new environment, both positive and negative.
- For example, some introduced species, such as certain types of fish, can be used for recreational purposes or as a source of food. Other introduced species, such as certain plants, can provide aesthetic value or other benefits.
- Invasive species:
- introduced species that have a negative impact on the environment, economy, or human health.
- These species are often highly adaptable and are able to outcompete native species for resources, leading to declines in native species populations and changes in the ecosystem.
- Invasive species can also cause economic harm, for example by damaging crops or infrastructure, or by spreading diseases.
- Impact of introduced and invasive species on natural ecosystems:
- can be significant.
- In many cases, these species are able to outcompete native species for resources, leading to declines in native species populations and changes in the ecosystem.
- This can result in a loss of biodiversity, as well as changes in the ecosystem's structure and function.
- Additionally, the introduction of invasive species can cause economic harm, for example by damaging crops or infrastructure, or by spreading diseases. Therefore, it is important to carefully consider the potential impacts of introducing non-native species to a new environment.
- Introduced species:
- Identify methods for evaluating biodiversity.
- Species richness:
- measures the number of different species in a given area.
- Species abundance:
- measures the relative abundance of each species in a given area.
- Species diversity:
- which takes into account both species richness and species abundance.
- Ecological niche:
- assesses the unique roles and contributions of each species in an ecosystem.
- Genetic diversity:
- assesses the variation in the genetic makeup of a species or group of species.
- Functional diversity:
- assesses the diversity of functions performed by different species in an ecosystem.
- Phylogenetic diversity:
- assesses the evolutionary relationships among different species in an ecosystem.
- Species richness:
- Distinguish between four biogeochemical cycles (hydrologic, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus) and provide examples of how nutrients flow between biotic and abiotic systems.
- The hydrologic cycle:
- describes the movement of water from the environment into living organisms, and then back into the environment through processes such as evaporation, transpiration, precipitation, and infiltration.
- For example, plants absorb water from the soil through their roots, and then release it back into the atmosphere through transpiration. This water can then fall back to the ground as precipitation, where it can be absorbed by the soil and used by plants again.
- The carbon cycle:
- describes the movement of carbon from the environment into living organisms, and then back into the environment through processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition.
- For example, plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, and then release it back into the atmosphere through respiration. When plants and animals die, their remains are broken down by decomposers, releasing the carbon back into the environment as carbon dioxide.
- The nitrogen cycle:
- describes the movement of nitrogen from the environment into living organisms, and then back into the environment through processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification.
- For example, nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is converted into a usable form by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which can then be absorbed by plants through their roots. When plants and animals die, their remains are broken down by decomposers, releasing the nitrogen back into the environment as nitrogen gas.
- The phosphorus cycle:
- describes the movement of phosphorus from the environment into living organisms, and then back into the environment through processes such as absorption, excretion, and decomposition.
- For example, plants absorb phosphorus from the soil through their roots, and then release it back into the soil through their leaves and other organic matter. When plants and animals die, their remains are broken down by decomposers, releasing the phosphorus back into the soil where it can be used by plants again.
- These biogeochemical cycles are an important part of the Earth's ecosystems, as they provide the nutrients that are essential for the growth and survival of living organisms.
- By understanding how nutrients move between biotic and abiotic systems, we can better understand the functioning of ecosystems and develop strategies for conserving and protecting them.
- The hydrologic cycle:
- Distinguish between nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification.
- Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification are three processes that are involved in the nitrogen cycle, which describes the movement of nitrogen from the environment into living organisms, and then back into the environment.
- Nitrogen fixation:
- the process by which nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is converted into a usable form, such as ammonia or nitrate, which can be absorbed by plants.
- This process is primarily carried out by certain types of bacteria, such as Rhizobia, which live in the root nodules of legumes, and by lightning in the atmosphere.
- Nitrogen fixation is an important step in the nitrogen cycle, as it makes nitrogen available to plants, which are unable to use nitrogen gas directly.
- Nitrification:
- process by which ammonia or other nitrogen-containing compounds are converted into nitrite and nitrate ions.
- This process is carried out by certain types of bacteria, such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter, which live in soil and other environments.
- Nitrification is an important step in the nitrogen cycle, as it makes nitrogen available in a form that can be easily absorbed by plants.
- Denitrification:
- process by which nitrate and nitrite ions are converted back into nitrogen gas.
- This process is carried out by certain types of bacteria, such as Pseudomonas and Bacillus, which live in soil and other environments.
- Denitrification is an important step in the nitrogen cycle, as it completes the cycle by returning nitrogen to the atmosphere in a form that can be used by nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
- In summary, nitrogen fixation converts nitrogen gas into a usable form, nitrification converts nitrogen-containing compounds into nitrate and nitrite ions, and denitrification converts nitrate and nitrite ions back into nitrogen gas.
- These processes are all important steps in the nitrogen cycle, which plays a crucial role in the functioning of ecosystems.
- Explain the roles of primary producers and bacteria in the biogeoclimatic cycles discussed in B111
- Primary producers (autotrophs, organisms that are capable of producing their own food using energy from using sunlight or inorganic compounds) play a crucial role in the biogeochemical cycles, as they are the starting point for the flow of energy and nutrients through ecosystems.
- For example, in the carbon cycle, primary producers use photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into organic compounds, such as sugars. These organic compounds are then used as food by other organisms, or are broken down by decomposers, releasing the carbon back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
- Bacteria are a type of microorganism that are present in almost all ecosystems.
- Some bacteria are primary producers, and can use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to produce their own food. Other bacteria are decomposers, and play a crucial role in breaking down organic matter and releasing nutrients back into the environment.
- Bacteria are important in the biogeochemical cycles because they are involved in many of the key processes that drive these cycles.
- For example, in the nitrogen cycle, certain bacteria are responsible for nitrogen fixation, which converts nitrogen gas into a usable form. Other bacteria are involved in nitrification and denitrification, which convert nitrogen-containing compounds into nitrate and nitrite ions, and then back into nitrogen gas.
- In summary, primary producers and bacteria play important roles in the biogeochemical cycles by converting energy and nutrients from the abiotic environment into forms that can be used by other organisms. They are the foundation of many ecosystems, and without them the cycles that sustain life on Earth would not be possible.
- Primary producers (autotrophs, organisms that are capable of producing their own food using energy from using sunlight or inorganic compounds) play a crucial role in the biogeochemical cycles, as they are the starting point for the flow of energy and nutrients through ecosystems.
- Identify the agencies responsible for assessing the vulnerability status of organisms.
- IUCN- European
- NatureServe - Established Rankings
- Species at Risk Act - SARA
- Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC)
- Provincial Conservation Data Centre (CDC)
- Explain what the designations G, N, and S stand for and how modifier codes are applied (X, H, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc).
- Designations G, N, and S refer to different categories of species in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
- The Red List is a global database that assesses the conservation status of species and categorizes them based on the level of threat to their survival. The G, N, and S designations are used to classify species as follows:
- G:
- The G designation stands for "global," and it is used to indicate that the species is assessed at the global level.
- This means that the species is found in more than one country, and its conservation status is assessed based on data from all of the countries where it occurs.
- N:
- The N designation stands for "national," and it is used to indicate that the species is assessed at the national level.
- This means that the species is found in only one country, and its conservation status is assessed based on data from that country.
- S:
- The S designation stands for "subnational," and it is used to indicate that the species is assessed at the subnational level.
- This means that the species is found in only one region within a country, and its conservation status is assessed based on data from that region.
- G:
- In addition to the G, N, and S designations, the IUCN Red List also uses modifier codes to provide additional information about a species' conservation status.
- These modifier codes are added to the G, N, or S designation and can include X, H, and numeric codes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.). The X modifier indicates that the species is extinct in the wild, while the H modifier indicates that the species is probably extinct in the wild.
- The numeric codes are used to indicate the level of threat to a species' survival. For example, a species that is assigned a G1 code is considered critically endangered at the global level, while a species that is assigned a G2 code is considered endangered at the global level.
- Discuss how biogeoclimatic zone types are determined and how such categorization is useful.
- Biogeoclimatic zones are regions that are characterized by their climate, vegetation, and soils.
- These zones are used to classify and map different areas based on the characteristics of the plants and animals that live there.
- To determine the biogeoclimatic zone type of an area, scientists may use a variety of methods.
- These methods can include field observations, aerial photography, satellite imagery, and analysis of soil and plant samples.
- By gathering and analyzing this information, scientists can identify the unique characteristics of an area and classify it into a specific biogeoclimatic zone.
- Categorizing areas into biogeoclimatic zones is useful for a variety of reasons.
- These zones provide a framework for understanding and comparing the ecology of different regions.
- They can also be used to identify areas that are at risk of environmental degradation, and to develop conservation and management strategies for those areas. Additionally, biogeoclimatic zones can be used to support research and monitoring efforts, and to guide the planning and management of land use and natural resource development.
Week 9:
- Define population bomb.
- term used to refer to the rapid growth of the human population, which has been a major concern in recent decades.
- It is often associated with the potential dangers of overpopulation, and with the need for urgent action to address the issue.
- Describe growth rates of the human population, and explain the impact of migration, improved health, and technology on human population dynamics.
- The growth rate of the human population has varied over time and across different regions of the world.
- Overall, the global population has been growing at a rapid rate, and it is currently increasing by about 83 million people per year. However, the rate of growth has been slowing in recent years, and it is expected to continue to slow in the future.
- There are several factors that can impact the growth rate of the human population.
- One of these factors is migration, which refers to the movement of people from one region to another.
- Migration can affect the growth rate of the population in a particular region by either increasing or decreasing the number of people living there.
- Improved health is another factor that can impact the growth rate of the population.
- When people have access to good health care and live in healthy environments, they are more likely to live longer and have more children. This can lead to an increase in the population growth rate.
- Technology is also a factor that can impact the growth rate of the population.
- Advances in technology can make it easier for people to have access to food, clean water, and other resources, which can support population growth. However, technology can also be used to improve health care and reduce the impact of diseases, which can slow the growth rate of the population.
- List the stages of the demographic transition model
- Stage 1: Pre-industrial society.
- In this stage, the population is relatively small and is characterized by high birth rates and high death rates.
- The population is in equilibrium, meaning that the number of births and deaths is roughly equal, and the population size remains stable.
- Stage 2: Early industrial society.
- In this stage, the population begins to grow rapidly as birth rates remain high and death rates start to decline. This is often due to improvements in healthcare and sanitation, which reduce the impact of disease.
- The population becomes larger and is no longer in equilibrium, as the number of births is greater than the number of deaths.
- Stage 3: Late industrial society.
- In this stage, the population continues to grow, but at a slower rate. This is due to a decline in birth rates, which is often a result of changes in social and economic conditions.
- Women may have fewer children because they are pursuing education and careers, and because they have access to birth control. The population is still growing, but the rate of growth slows down.
- Stage 4: Post-industrial society.
- In this stage, the population reaches a new equilibrium, with low birth rates and low death rates.
- The population may continue to grow, but at a very slow rate, and may even start to decline. This is often due to changes in social and economic conditions, as well as improvements in healthcare and technology.
- Stage 1: Pre-industrial society.
- Describe the demographic transition model.
- The demographic transition model is a theoretical model that describes how the population of a country or region changes over time.
- The model is based on the observation that as societies develop, their population size and growth rate typically change in predictable ways.
- Describe human population growth rate patterns as they vary in different countries and regions around the world.
- The human population growth rate varies among different countries and regions around the world.
- In general, the population growth rate is higher in developing countries compared to developed countries.
- This is because developing countries tend to have higher birth rates and lower death rates.
- In developed countries, the population growth rate is often low or negative due to factors such as low fertility rates and aging populations.
- Describe the impact of population control on human populations in specific countries or regions of the world.
- Population control measures aim to regulate the growth of the human population in order to reduce the strain on natural resources and the environment.
- These measures can include a variety of policies and programs, such as promoting family planning and access to birth control, providing education and incentives for small families, and implementing measures to reduce mortality rates.
- Describe the impact of human population growth on ecosystems
- One of the main ways in which human population growth affects ecosystems is through the process of urbanization. As more people move into urban areas, natural habitats are often converted into urban landscapes, leading to the loss of biodiversity and the disruption of natural processes. In addition, the growth of cities can also lead to air and water pollution, which can have negative impacts on the health of ecosystems and the species that depend on them.
- Another way in which human population growth can affect ecosystems is through the overuse of resources. As human populations grow, the demand for food, water, and other resources increases, leading to the overuse of these resources. This can lead to the depletion of natural resources, such as freshwater aquifers and forests, and can also lead to soil erosion and other forms of environmental degradation.
- Define ecological footprint, carbon footprint and biocapacity
- Ecological footprint:
- measure of the impact that human activities have on the environment. It is calculated by estimating the amount of land and water required to produce the resources that a person or population consumes, and to absorb the waste that is generated by those activities.
- The ecological footprint can be used to compare the sustainability of different activities, and to determine whether or not a particular lifestyle or population is using resources at a rate that can be sustained over time.
- Carbon footprint:
- measure of the greenhouse gas emissions that are produced by a person, organization, or activity.
- It is calculated by estimating the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that are emitted through the use of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
- The carbon footprint is often used as a measure of the environmental impact of different activities, and as a way to compare the sustainability of different products and services.
- Biocapacity:
- measure of the ability of an ecosystem to produce renewable resources and to absorb waste.
- It is calculated by estimating the amount of land and water available for production, and the ability of that land and water to regenerate resources and absorb waste.
- Biocapacity is often used as a measure of the sustainability of a particular ecosystem, and as a way to compare the sustainability of different regions or countries.
- Ecological footprint:
- List what the ecological footprint measures on the demand side
- The ecological footprint measures the demand for natural resources on the demand side.
- This includes the amount of land and water required to produce the food, shelter, and other goods and services that a person or population consumes.
- It also includes the amount of land and water required to absorb the waste that is generated by those activities.
- In this way, the ecological footprint provides a measure of the impact that human activities have on the environment, and can be used to compare the sustainability of different lifestyles or populations.
- List the ecological assets that contribute to the ecological footprint on the supply side
- Arable land:
- This is the land that is suitable for growing crops and raising livestock.
- The availability of arable land is a key factor in determining the ability of a region to produce food and other resources.
- Forest land:
- Forests provide a range of ecological services, including the production of timber and other forest products, the regulation of water flow and air quality, and the support of biodiversity.
- The availability of forest land is a key factor in determining the ecological footprint of a region.
- Water resources:
- Freshwater is a vital resource for human activities, including the production of food, the generation of energy, and the provision of drinking water.
- The availability of water resources is a key factor in determining the ecological footprint of a region.
- Mineral resources:
- Many human activities, such as the production of steel and other metals, rely on the availability of mineral resources.
- The availability of mineral resources is a key factor in determining the ecological footprint of a region.
- Arable land:
- Distinguish between an ecological deficit and an ecological reserve
- Ecological deficit:
- occurs when the demand for natural resources exceeds the supply of those resources within a particular region.
- This means that the region is consuming more resources than it is able to produce, and must import resources from other regions in order to meet its needs.
- An ecological deficit can have negative impacts on the environment, such as deforestation and habitat loss, and can also lead to conflicts over the use of resources. - Ecological reserve:
- occurs when the supply of natural resources within a region exceeds the demand for those resources.
- This means that the region has more resources available than it needs, and can export excess resources to other regions.
- An ecological reserve can provide a buffer against the impacts of resource depletion, and can also support the sustainable use of natural resources.
- Define Earth Overshoot Day and what can be done to change it
- Earth Overshoot Day is the date on which humanity's demand for ecological resources and services exceeds what the Earth can renew in that year. In other words, it is the point at which we are using more resources than the planet can sustainably provide.
- Earth Overshoot Day is calculated by the Global Footprint Network, and has been observed on a later date each year since the 1970s.
- There are several things that can be done to change the date of Earth Overshoot Day and reduce humanity's ecological footprint. Some of the key actions that can be taken include:
- Reducing the use of fossil fuels and transitioning to renewable energy sources. This can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and slow down climate change.
- Improving the efficiency of resource use. By using resources more efficiently, we can reduce the amount of land and water required to produce the goods and services that we consume.
- Reducing waste and promoting the circular economy. By reducing the amount of waste that is produced and increasing the reuse and recycling of materials, we can reduce the demand for new resources.
- Protecting and restoring natural habitats. By protecting and restoring natural habitats, we can support the regeneration of natural resources and improve the ability of the environment to absorb waste.
- Distinguish between the ecological footprints of consumption, production and trade
- The ecological footprint is a measure of the impact of human activities on the environment.
- The ecological footprint of consumption refers to the impact of the goods and services that a person or population consumes.
- This includes the resources that are used to produce the goods and services, as well as the waste that is generated during their production and consumption.
- The ecological footprint of consumption is determined by the quantity and type of goods and services that are consumed, as well as the resources and waste associated with those activities.
- The ecological footprint of production refers to the impact of the goods and services that are produced within a particular region.
- This includes the resources that are used to produce the goods and services, as well as the waste that is generated during their production.
- The ecological footprint of production is determined by the quantity and type of goods and services that are produced, as well as the resources and waste associated with those activities.
- The ecological footprint of trade refers to the impact of the goods and services that are imported and exported between different regions.
- This includes the resources that are used to produce the goods and services, as well as the waste that is generated during their production and transportation.
- The ecological footprint of trade is determined by the quantity and type of goods and services that are traded, as well as the resources and waste associated with those activities.
Week 10 (on cheatsheet):
- Define G1, S phase, G2, and
G0, centromeres and sister chromatids.- The cell cycle is divided into several phases, including G1, S, G2, and G0.
- G1 is the first gap phase:
- cell grows and performs its normal functions.
- prepares to divide
- S phase, or synthesis phase:
- cell's DNA is replicated.
- G2 is the second gap phase:
- during which the cell prepares for mitosis.
- G0 is a stage in which the cell is no longer dividing and has entered a quiescent/inactivity state.
- G1 is the first gap phase:
- Centromeres are specialized structures that hold sister chromatids together during cell division.
- ![[Pasted image 20221207195547.png]]
- Sister chromatids are two copies of a replicated chromosome that are joined together at the centromere.
- ![[Pasted image 20221207195645.png]]
- The cell cycle is divided into several phases, including G1, S, G2, and G0.
- List the phases of mitosis.
- The phases of mitosis are:
- Prophase:
- During prophase, the chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell become visible and the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
- Metaphase:
- In metaphase, the chromosomes line up in the center of the cell.
- Anaphase:
- In anaphase, the chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.
- Telophase:
- Finally, in telophase, a new nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes at each pole and the cell begins to divide into two daughter cells.
- Prophase:
- The phases of mitosis are:
- Describe the role of checkpoints in the cell cycle.
- Cell cycle checkpoints are regulatory mechanisms that help ensure the integrity of the cell cycle.
- They allow the cell to pause and assess its progress before moving on to the next phase of the cell cycle.
- This helps ensure that all necessary conditions are met before the cell continues to divide.
- For example, a checkpoint might ensure that the chromosomes are properly replicated and aligned before moving on to anaphase. If any errors or problems are detected, the cell can halt the cell cycle until the issue is resolved.
- This helps prevent the formation of abnormal cells, which can lead to disease or other problems.
- List the various checkpoints and each of their particular roles.
- The G1 checkpoint, also known as the restriction point, is the point at which the cell decides whether to enter the next phase of the cell cycle or remain in G1.
- The G2 checkpoint occurs just before the cell enters mitosis, and is responsible for ensuring that the cell is ready to undergo cell division.
- The metaphase checkpoint is a critical point in mitosis, and is responsible for ensuring that the chromosomes are properly aligned in the center of the cell before moving on to anaphase.
- Finally, the anaphase checkpoint helps ensure that the cell is ready to separate the chromosomes and begin cytokinesis, the process of dividing the cell into two daughter cells.
- Define the following: cancer, tumour, neoplasm, benign tumour, malignant tumour, carcinoma, sarcoma, leukemia and lymphoma.
- Cancer is a general term that refers to a group of diseases in which abnormal cells divide and grow in an uncontrolled way.
- A tumor is an abnormal growth of cells that can occur in any part of the body.
- A neoplasm is a general term for a tumor, whether it is benign or malignant.
- A benign tumor is a non-cancerous growth that does not spread to other parts of the body.
- A malignant tumor, on the other hand, is cancerous and can spread to other parts of the body.
- Carcinoma is a type of cancer that begins in the cells that line the organs, such as the skin or the lining of the digestive tract.
- Sarcoma is a type of cancer that arises from connective tissues, such as muscle or bone.
- Leukemia is a type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow.
- Lymphoma is a type of cancer that affects the immune system, specifically the cells called lymphocytes.
- Define and describe metastasis, proto-oncogene, oncogene, and tumour suppressor gene.
- Metastasis is the process by which cancer cells spread from the original site of the cancer to other parts of the body. This can happen through the blood or the lymphatic system.
- Proto-oncogenes are genes that normally help cells grow and divide to make new cells, or to help cells stay alive.
- are genes that have the potential to become oncogenes.
- Oncogenes are genes (that were proto-oncogenes that were mutated) that have the ability to cause cancer.
- Tumour suppressor genes are genes that can suppress the development of cancer by making proteins called a turmo supressor protein that helps control cell growth.
Week 11 (on cheatsheet): Essential Outcomes:
- There are two physiological systems for intercellular communication that are structurally and functionally related. Although they control different types of activities, they must work together to ensure proper chemical communication and response.
- Glucose levels in the body are tightly controlled by two hormones, insulin and glucagon.
- Glucose is a ubiquitous fuel in biology used as an energy source in most organisms, from bacteria to humans. It is the key source of immediate energy.
- All living cells require certain essential nutrients; however, the ways in which animals and plants obtain them are specific and unique.
- Proper nutrition is essential to every living organism.
- Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis are at the heart of energy flow
- Plants store excess energy as carbohydrates, synthesized from glucose.
- Animals store a limited amount of energy as glucose and excess energy as fat.
- There are more misconceptions about what is a good diet than perhaps of any other aspect of biology Learning Objectives:
- Identify and explain the two physiological systems in animals that control chemical communication.
- The two physiological systems for intercellular communication are the nervous system and the endocrine system.
- These two systems are related in that they both control the chemical signaling that occurs within the body, but they do so in different ways.
- Nervous system is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that control and coordinate the body's responses to internal and external stimuli.
- It is made up of neurons, which are specialized cells that transmit electrical impulses, and glial cells, which support and protect the neurons.
- The nervous system is responsible for rapid, short-term responses to stimuli, such as the reflexes that allow us to quickly withdraw our hand from a hot surface.
- The endocrine system, on the other hand, is a collection of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
- Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by the glands and travel through the bloodstream to target cells, where they bind to specific receptors and trigger a response. T
- The endocrine system is responsible for slower, long-term responses to stimuli, such as the release of growth hormones that regulate growth and development.
- Nervous system is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that control and coordinate the body's responses to internal and external stimuli.
- Compare and contrast hormonal control and neural control.
- Hormonal control involves the release of hormones into the bloodstream by glands in the endocrine system.
- These hormones are chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream to target cells, where they bind to specific receptors and trigger a response.
- Hormonal control is slow and long-lasting, and it can affect many different parts of the body at once.
- For example, the release of hormones from the thyroid gland can affect the body's metabolism, growth, and development.
- Neural control involves the transmission of electrical impulses along neurons in the nervous system.
- These impulses are generated in response to stimuli and are transmitted through the network of neurons to other cells, where they can trigger a response.
- Neural control is fast and short-term, and it is typically localized to a specific part of the body.
- For example, when you touch a hot surface, neurons in your hand transmit an impulse to your spinal cord, which triggers a reflex that causes you to quickly withdraw your hand.
- Hormonal control involves the release of hormones into the bloodstream by glands in the endocrine system.
- Define the following: hormones, target cells, receptor proteins, autocrine regulation, paracrine regulation, neuroendocrine regulation, neurohormones, endocrine gland, and exocrine gland.
- Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by glands in the endocrine system and are released into the bloodstream.
- They travel to target cells, where they bind to specific receptors and trigger a response.
- Target cells are the cells in the body that are affected by hormones.
- These cells have specific receptors for the hormones, and when the hormones bind to these receptors, they trigger a response.
- Receptor proteins are proteins found on the surface of target cells that bind to hormones.
- When a hormone binds to its specific receptor protein, it triggers a response in the target cell.
- Autocrine regulation is a type of cell signaling in which a cell produces a hormone that then acts on the same cell.
- This can help to regulate the function of the cell and maintain homeostasis.
- Paracrine regulation is a type of cell signaling in which a cell produces a hormone that then acts on nearby cells.
- This can help to coordinate the activities of cells in a specific area and maintain homeostasis.
- Neuroendocrine regulation is a type of cell signaling in which the nervous system and the endocrine system work together to control the body's responses to stimuli.
- In this type of regulation, the nervous system may release hormones from endocrine glands in response to a stimulus, which then act on target cells to trigger a response.
- Neurohormones are hormones that are produced by neurons in the nervous system.
- These hormones can act on target cells to regulate their function and help to coordinate the activities of the body.
- An endocrine gland is a gland in the endocrine system that produces hormones and releases them into the bloodstream.
- Examples of endocrine glands include the thyroid gland and the pancreas.
- An exocrine gland is a gland that produces a substance (such as sweat or saliva) and releases it into a duct that carries it to the surface of the body or to another organ.
- Examples of exocrine glands include sweat glands and salivary glands.
- Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by glands in the endocrine system and are released into the bloodstream.
- Explain the major types of cell signaling in the hormonal and nervous systems.
- Autocrine signaling occurs when a cell produces a hormone that then acts on the same cell. This type of signaling helps to regulate the function of the cell and maintain homeostasis.
- Paracrine signaling occurs when a cell produces a hormone that then acts on nearby cells. This type of signaling helps to coordinate the activities of cells in a specific area and maintain homeostasis.
- Endocrine signaling occurs when a hormone is produced by a gland in the endocrine system and released into the bloodstream. The hormone then travels to target cells, where it binds to specific receptors and triggers a response. This type of signaling allows for long-range communication and coordination of the body's functions.
- In the nervous system, there are two major types of cell signaling: electrical signaling and chemical signaling.
- Electrical signaling occurs when an electrical impulse is generated by a neuron in response to a stimulus. The impulse is then transmitted along the axon of the neuron to other cells, where it can trigger a response. This type of signaling is fast and allows for rapid communication and coordination of the body's functions.
- Chemical signaling occurs when a chemical messenger (called a neurotransmitter) is released by a neuron in response to a stimulus. The neurotransmitter then binds to specific receptors on other cells, where it can trigger a response. This type of signaling is slower than electrical signaling but allows for more precise control of the body's functions.
- Explain the reaction pathway of peptide hormones and compare it to that of steroid and fatty acid hormones, such as estrogen.
- Peptide hormones are a type of hormone that is made up of chains of amino acids.
- When a peptide hormone is released into the bloodstream, it travels to target cells, where it binds to specific receptors on the cell surface.
- This binding triggers a series of events inside the cell, known as the reaction pathway.
- Reaction pathway: 1. The first step in the reaction pathway of a peptide hormone is the activation of a specific enzyme, known as a G protein-coupled receptor. This enzyme is activated when the hormone binds to its receptor on the cell surface. 2. Next, the activated enzyme activates another enzyme inside the cell, known as adenylate cyclase. This enzyme converts ATP (the cell's energy source) into cyclic AMP (cAMP), which is a second messenger. 3. The cAMP then activates protein kinase A (PKA), which is an enzyme that can phosphorylate (add a phosphate group to) other proteins inside the cell. The phosphorylated proteins can then go on to trigger various cellular responses, such as the activation of other enzymes or the transcription of specific genes.
- How is the reaction pathway of peptide hormones different than steroid and fatty acid hormones?
- This reaction pathway is different from the reaction pathway of steroid and fatty acid hormones, such as estrogen.
- Steroid and fatty acid hormones are lipid-soluble and can easily pass through the cell membrane. Once inside the cell, they bind to specific receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus. This binding then triggers a series of events inside the cell, including the activation of specific genes and the synthesis of new proteins. These proteins can then go on to trigger various cellular responses, such as the activation of other enzymes or the modification of the cell's structure or function.
- Describe how amplification works in hormonal activation after a hormone is bound to a receptor.
- check above ^
- Describe how glucose levels are homeostatically controlled
- Glucose levels in the body are homeostatically controlled through a complex interplay of hormones, enzymes, and other mechanisms.
- The main hormones involved in the regulation of glucose levels are insulin and glucagon, which are produced by the pancreas.
- When glucose levels in the blood are high, the pancreas releases insulin.
- Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells, particularly by cells in the liver and muscles, where it can be stored as glycogen.
- Insulin also stimulates the synthesis of glycogen and fatty acids, which helps to reduce the amount of glucose in the blood.
- When glucose levels in the blood are low, the pancreas releases glucagon. Glucagon stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver, which releases glucose into the bloodstream.
- This helps to raise glucose levels in the blood.
- In addition to these hormones, enzymes such as hexokinase and glucokinase also play a role in the homeostatic control of glucose levels. Hexokinase helps to convert glucose into glycogen, while glucokinase helps to convert glycogen back into glucose.
- Overall, the homeostatic control of glucose levels involves a complex interplay of hormones, enzymes, and other mechanisms. The release of insulin and glucagon by the pancreas, along with the actions of enzymes such as hexokinase and glucokinase, help to maintain glucose levels within a healthy range.
- Explain the basis of diabetes
- In people with diabetes, there is either a deficiency of insulin (as in type 1 diabetes) or a resistance to the effects of insulin (as in type 2 diabetes). This means that the body is unable to properly regulate blood sugar levels, leading to high levels of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia).
- Define macronutrients, micronutrients, and essential nutrients.
- Macronutrients are the nutrients that the body needs in large amounts to function properly and maintain good health. These include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
- Micronutrients are nutrients that the body needs in small amounts to function properly and maintain good health. These include vitamins and minerals.
- Essential nutrients are nutrients that the body cannot produce on its own and must be obtained from the diet. These include both macronutrients and micronutrients.
- Identify the three key nutrients that plants need, and explain what each is specifically used for. - Nitrogen is used by plants to produce amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. It is also important for the synthesis of chlorophyll, which plants need in order to perform photosynthesis. Nitrogen is typically found in the soil in the form of nitrates and ammonium ions, and it is absorbed by plants through their roots. - Phosphorus is another essential nutrient for plants. It is used by plants to produce ATP, which is the primary source of energy for the plant's cells. It is also involved in the synthesis of nucleic acids, which are essential for the plant's DNA and RNA. Phosphorus is typically found in the soil in the form of phosphate ions, and it is absorbed by plants through their roots. - Potassium is a third key nutrient for plants. It is involved in many important plant processes, including photosynthesis, enzyme production, and the regulation of water uptake and water loss. Potassium is typically found in the soil in the form of potassium ions, and it is absorbed by plants through their roots.
- Explain why animals must obtain both the organic and inorganic nutrients they need from their diet, whereas plants need to obtain only the inorganic nutrients they need - Animals are unable to produce their own organic food. - Plants are able to produce their own organic food via photosynthesis.
- Describe how plants store energy, compare this to how animals store energy, and give reasons why they differ. - Plants store energy in the form of starch, which is a complex carbohydrate that is produced during photosynthesis. When a plant undergoes photosynthesis, it uses energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, which is a simple sugar. The plant then uses the glucose to produce starch, which is stored in the plant's cells as a long-term energy reserve. - In contrast, animals store energy in the form of glycogen, which is a complex carbohydrate that is similar to starch. Unlike plants, animals do not produce their own food through photosynthesis. Instead, they obtain the glucose they need from their diet. When an animal consumes glucose, its body converts the glucose into glycogen, which is then stored in the animal's liver and muscles as a long-term energy reserve. - The main difference between the way plants and animals store energy is that plants produce their own glucose through photosynthesis, whereas animals obtain glucose from their diet. As a result, plants are able to store large amounts of energy in the form of starch, whereas animals are limited in the amount of glycogen they can store in their liver and muscles.
Week 12 (on cheatsheet): Essential Outcomes:
- Many diseases are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and worms.
- Understanding the biology of an agent of disease is crucial to understanding treatment. Learning Objectives:
- Identify the main types of agents that cause disease.
- Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, worms
- Explain what a disease vector is. Give examples.
- Define the four main types of transmission cycles for infectious diseases and explain one example of each.
- Identify the transmission category of SARS CoV-2. Explain how zoonosis applies to this viruses.
- SARS CoV-2 is anthroponoses (direct transmission)
- SARS CoV-2 had a zoonotic origin (disease carried from animal to animal)
- Predict how climate change could impact distribution patterns of three infectious diseases of your choice. Explain.
- Malaria: Climate change could potentially increase the distribution of malaria, as warmer temperatures and increased rainfall can create more favorable conditions for the transmission of the disease. Warmer temperatures can also allow mosquitoes to breed more rapidly, potentially increasing the number of vectors that transmit the disease.
- West Nile virus: Climate change could potentially increase the distribution of West Nile virus, as warmer temperatures can allow the virus to replicate more quickly in the bodies of infected birds, and can also increase the number of mosquitoes that carry the virus. In addition, climate change could lead to increased rainfall and flooding, which can create more standing water for mosquitoes to breed in.
- Cholera: Climate change could potentially increase the distribution of cholera, as warmer temperatures and increased rainfall can create more favorable conditions for the growth of the bacteria that cause the disease. In addition, climate change could lead to more extreme weather events, such as floods and hurricanes, which can contaminate water supplies and increase the risk of cholera transmission.
- Define protist.
- A protist is a type of microorganism that belongs to the kingdom Protista.
- Protists are eukaryotic, meaning that they have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
- They are typically unicellular, although some protists are capable of forming colonies or complex multicellular structures.
- Protists are diverse and varied in their characteristics and behaviors, and they are found in a wide range of environments, including fresh water, marine environments, and soil.
- Protists can be classified into several different groups, including algae, amoebas, and ciliates.
- Explain how protozoa can be beneficial and harmful.
- Some protozoa are beneficial because they play important roles in the environment and in the ecosystems they inhabit.
- For example, some protozoa are decomposers, which means that they break down dead plant and animal material and recycle nutrients back into the soil. This helps to maintain the health and productivity of the ecosystem.
- Other protozoa are beneficial because they provide food for other organisms.
- For example, many protozoa are an important food source for animals, such as fish and invertebrates, which in turn provide food for other animals higher up in the food chain.
- Some protozoa are parasites, which means that they live in or on other organisms and derive their nutrition from them.
- This can cause harm to the host organism, resulting in symptoms such as illness, tissue damage, and reduced growth and productivity.
- Some protozoa are beneficial because they play important roles in the environment and in the ecosystems they inhabit.
- Describe the protozoan that causes malaria. Explain how it is transmitted and why it is a major concern globally?
- The protozoan that causes malaria is called Plasmodium. It is a parasite that is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected mosquito. When a mosquito carrying the parasite bites a person, the parasite enters the person's bloodstream and begins to multiply. This can cause symptoms such as fever, headache, and muscle pain. If left untreated, malaria can be severe and even fatal.
- Malaria is a major concern globally because it is a widespread and potentially deadly disease. It is estimated that there are more than 200 million cases of malaria each year, and that it causes more than 400,000 deaths, primarily in Africa. The disease is particularly prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, where the warm climate and high levels of rainfall create ideal conditions for the transmission of the parasite.
- Appreciate the diversity (and beauty) of fungi. (not a learning objective you can use as a study question.....)
- Compare nutrient absorption in humans and fungi (i.e. how are they similar?). - both are heterotrophic organisms (unable to produce food) - fungi have hyphae (long, thin, branching filaments) that have tiny pores called septa, which are then used to absorb nutrients in the environment - fungus uses enzymes to break down nutrients to be absorbed by the fungus' cells
- Explain how humans contract blastomycosis and how it causes health issues. - contract blastomycosis by inhaling a fungus called Blastomyces dermatitis - fungus is found in soil and decaying wood - can lead to severe illness or death as fungus grows and multiplies
Week 13 (working on cheatsheet):
- Define biotechnology, molecular biotechnology, and in vitro.
- Biotechnology is a field of science that involves the use of living organisms or their products to develop or improve products or processes
- ex. applications include improvements to medicine, agriculture, and envirionment management
- Molecular biotechnology is a field in biotechnology that involves molecular techniques and technologies to manipulate biological systems.
- ex. genetic engineering, genomics, to study and modify functions of genes and proteins
- In vitro is a term that refers to biological processes or experiments that are performed outside of a living organism.
- experiments carryied out in a lab setting, using artificial conditions to simulate an environment inside a living organism.
- allows researchers to study and observe cells, tissues, and other biological materials in a controlled setting
- Biotechnology is a field of science that involves the use of living organisms or their products to develop or improve products or processes
- List examples in which humans harness the metabolic processes of other organisms to improve food.
- Fermentation: Fermentation is a process in which microorganisms, such as bacteria and yeast, convert carbohydrates into alcohol or organic acids. This process is used to produce a wide range of foods and beverages, including bread, beer, cheese, and yogurt.
- Enzyme production: Many food products, such as bread, cheese, and juice, are made using enzymes that are produced by microorganisms. These enzymes are used to improve the texture, flavor, and nutritional content of the food.
- Biopreservation: Microorganisms, such as lactic acid bacteria, can be used to preserve food by producing antimicrobial compounds that inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. This can help to extend the shelf life of foods and prevent foodborne illness.
- Bioremediation: Microorganisms can be used to remove contaminants from food and water, improving their quality and safety. For example, bacteria and fungi can be used to break down pesticides and other pollutants in soil and water, making them safe for use in agriculture.
- Define bioinformatics and describe how the use of computers greatly contributes to our knowledge of the biological world.
- Define polymerase chain reaction, thermocycler, and oligonucleotide primers.
- PCR is for amplifying a target DNA sequence. The process includes denaturation, annealing, and extension.
- Denaturation:
- DNA strands are separated by heating up mixture to a high enough temperature.
- Annealing:
- short pieces of DNA called olignucleotide primers are added to mixture
- primers help initiate the synthesis of new DNA strands
- Extension:
- DNA polymerase enzyme added to the mixture, and it uses the oligonucleotide primers to synthesize new DNA strands.
- Process is repeated multiple times.
- process repeated multiple times to amplify target DNA sequence.
- Denaturation:
- Thermocycler:
- machine that automates the PCR process
- has cooling and heating elements to control and ensure mixture is at an accurate temperature
- Olignonucleotide primers:
- short pieces of DNA used to initiate synthesis new DNA strands.
- PCR is for amplifying a target DNA sequence. The process includes denaturation, annealing, and extension.
- Describe the process of PCR.
- Denaturation:
- DNA strands are separated by heating up mixture to a high enough temperature.
- Annealing:
- short pieces of DNA called olignucleotide primers are added to mixture
- primers help initiate the synthesis of new DNA strands
- Extension:
- DNA polymerase enzyme added to the mixture, and it uses the oligonucleotide primers to synthesize new DNA strands.
- Process is repeated multiple times.
- process repeated multiple times to amplify target DNA sequence.
- Denaturation:
- Describe how plasmids can be used in creating recombinant DNA.
- Plasmids are small, circular pieces of DNA that are found in bacteria and other microorganisms. They are separate from the bacterial chromosome, and they can replicate independently of the bacterial genome.
- Plasmids are often used in creating recombinant DNA because they can be easily isolated from bacterial cells, and they can be readily manipulated and introduced into other bacterial cells.
- To create recombinant DNA using plasmids, the first step is to isolate the plasmid DNA from bacterial cells. This is typically done using a technique called plasmid isolation, which involves breaking open the bacterial cells and separating the plasmid DNA from the bacterial genome.
- Once the plasmid DNA has been isolated, it can be manipulated using a variety of techniques, such as restriction enzyme digestion and ligation. These techniques allow researchers to cut the plasmid DNA at specific locations, remove or insert DNA sequences, and join the resulting DNA fragments together to create a new, recombinant plasmid.
- The final step in creating recombinant DNA using plasmids is to introduce the recombinant plasmid into bacterial cells. This is typically done using a technique called transformation, in which the recombinant plasmid is introduced into bacterial cells using an electric current or chemical agents. The bacterial cells then take up the plasmid DNA and incorporate it into their own genome, allowing the recombinant DNA to be expressed and studied.
- Define the following: functional genomics, proteomics, proteome, transcriptomics, and transcriptome.
- Functional genomics is the study of the functions and interactions of genes and their products. This can include the identification and characterization of genes, the analysis of gene expression patterns, and the study of the functions of proteins and other gene products.
- Proteomics is the study of the complete set of proteins that are expressed by an organism, tissue, or cell.
- The proteome is the complete set of proteins that are expressed by an organism, tissue, or cell at a given time.
- Transcriptomics is the study of the complete set of RNA molecules that are produced by an organism, tissue, or cell.
- The transcriptome is the complete set of RNA molecules that are produced by an organism, tissue, or cell at a given time.
- Explain different ways in which foreign DNA is introduced into plant cells.
- Agrobacterium-mediated transformation: Agrobacterium is a type of bacteria that can transfer DNA from its own genome into the genome of plant cells. This process is called Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, and it is widely used to introduce foreign DNA into plant cells. The foreign DNA is typically inserted into a plasmid, which is then introduced into the Agrobacterium. The Agrobacterium is then used to transfer the plasmid DNA into the plant cells, where it is incorporated into the plant genome.
- Particle bombardment: Particle bombardment, also known as biolistics, involves using a device to physically shoot tiny particles coated with DNA into plant cells. The particles are fired at high speed into the plant tissue, where they penetrate the cell walls and deliver the DNA into the cells. This method is often used to introduce foreign DNA into plant cells that are difficult to transform using other methods.
- Electroporation: Electroporation involves using an electric current to create temporary holes in the cell membrane, allowing foreign DNA to enter the cell. The plant tissue is placed in a solution containing the DNA, and then an electric current is applied to the tissue. The electric current creates holes in the cell membrane, allowing the DNA to enter the cells.
- Microinjection: Microinjection involves using a fine needle to inject foreign DNA directly into individual plant cells. The needle is inserted into the cell, and the DNA is injected into the cytoplasm or nucleus. This method allows precise control over which cells receive the foreign DNA, but it is labor-intensive and time-consuming.
- Explain tissue culture and discuss why parenchyma is usually the tissue type that is used to initiate plant tissue cultures.
- Explain how an entirely new plant is generated from a piece of stem or an isolated plant cell.
- Summarize alternative ways to generate new plants.
- Sexual production:
- fusion of male and female gametes (reproductive cell)
- ex. pollen and ovules produce a zygote -> embryo -> new plant - Asexual production:
- reproduction without gametes or fertilization
- ex. vegetative reproduction (plants produced from vegetative organs such as roots, stems, or leaves).
- allow plants to reproduce quickly and efficiently.
- Explain why culturing of plant cell must be done in aseptic conditions.
- self explanatory? (aseptic means contaminated)
- Describe some of the applications of tissue culture.
- production of genetically modified plants.
- production of plant-derived products.
- Explain how Agrobacterium introduces DNA into a plant. 1. The first step is the uptake of Agrobacterium by the plant cells. This typically occurs through natural channels, such as wounds or abrasions, where the plant tissue is exposed to the bacteria. The Agrobacterium then colonizes the plant tissue and begins to multiply. 2. The next step is the transfer of DNA from the Agrobacterium to the plant cells. This occurs through a specialized DNA transfer system called the T-complex. The T-complex is a large, multiprotein structure that is composed of proteins encoded by the Agrobacterium's Ti (tumor-inducing) plasmid. The Ti plasmid carries the DNA that will be transferred to the plant cells. 3. Once the T-complex has been assembled, it is transported to the plant cell surface, where it comes into contact with the plant cell membrane. The T-complex then forms a channel through the plant cell membrane, allowing the Ti plasmid DNA to enter the plant cell. 4. Once the Ti plasmid DNA has entered the plant cell, it is integrated into the plant genome by a process called homologous recombination. This involves the insertion of the Ti plasmid DNA into a specific site in the plant genome, where it becomes stably integrated and expressed.
- Explain how Agrobacterium is used as a vector by humans to introduce foreign DNA into plants.
- foreign DNA can be inserted into the Ti plasmid DNA of Agrobacterium (Agrobacterium-mediated transformation)
- typically through particle bombardment or electroporation - Agrobacterium is introduced to natural channels (wounds or abrasions) of plant - Agrobacterium assembles T-complex to transfer Ti plasmid to plant - Once T-complex is assembled, it is transported to the plant cell surface, where it comes into contact with the plant cell membrane. - The T-complex then forms a channel through the plant cell membrane, allowing Ti plasmid DNA to enter plant cell - When Ti plasmid DNA has entered the plant cell, it is integrated into the plant genome.
- Describe methods, other than Agrobacterium, that are used to introduce foreign DNA into a plant. - Particle bombardment and electroporation.
- Identify six plant species that have been genetically modified. Explain how the modification has improved each plant’s success as a crop (add to cheatsheet).
- Corn: Corn has been genetically modified to express genes that provide resistance to pests and diseases, such as the corn borer and corn earworm.
- These modifications have improved the success of corn as a crop by reducing the need for chemical pesticides and increasing the yield of the crop.
- Soybeans: Soybeans have been genetically modified to express genes that provide resistance to herbicides, such as glyphosate.
- This allows farmers to control weeds without damaging the soybeans, improving the success of the crop.
- Canola: Canola has been genetically modified to express genes that provide resistance to pests and diseases, such as the blackleg fungus.
- These modifications have improved the success of canola as a crop by reducing the need for chemical pesticides and increasing the yield of the crop.
- Cotton: Cotton has been genetically modified to express genes that provide resistance to pests and diseases, such as the cotton bollworm.
- These modifications have improved the success of cotton as a crop by reducing the need for chemical pesticides and increasing the yield of the crop.
- Papaya: Papaya has been genetically modified to express genes that provide resistance to a viral disease called papaya ringspot virus.
- This has improved the success of papaya as a crop by reducing the impact of the disease and increasing the yield of the crop.
- Rice: Rice has been genetically modified to express genes that provide enhanced nutritional value, such as increased levels of beta-carotene.
- This has improved the success of rice as a crop by providing a healthier and more nutritious food source for consumers.
- Corn: Corn has been genetically modified to express genes that provide resistance to pests and diseases, such as the corn borer and corn earworm.
- Explain the meaning of “Round-up Ready”. Explain how Round-up Ready plants differ from the same species that are not genetically engineered.
- Round-up Ready is a term used to describe plants that have been genetically modified to be resistant to the herbicide glyphosate, which is commonly known by the brand name Round-up. Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum herbicide that is effective against many different types of weeds, but it can also damage or kill non-target plants, including crops.
- Round-up Ready plants have been genetically modified to express genes that provide resistance to glyphosate. These genes typically come from bacteria that are naturally resistant to the herbicide, such as Agrobacterium or Pseudomonas. When the Round-up Ready plants are exposed to glyphosate, the herbicide is unable to kill or damage the plants, allowing them to continue to grow and develop.
- Round-up Ready plants differ from the same species that are not genetically modified in several ways.
- First, Round-up Ready plants are resistant to glyphosate, whereas non-modified plants are not. This allows Round-up Ready plants to be grown in areas where glyphosate is used for weed control, without damaging the crops.
- Second, Round-up Ready plants may express other traits or characteristics that are not found in non-modified plants, depending on the genes that were introduced during the genetic modification process.
- Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium. Explain its use in agriculture.
- Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacterium that is commonly used in agriculture as a biological pesticide. Bt produces a protein called Cry that is toxic to certain insects, such as beetles, flies, and moths. When ingested by these insects, the Cry protein is activated and forms a pore in the insect's gut, causing the insect to become paralyzed and eventually die.
- Bt is used in agriculture to control pests that damage crops. This is typically done by applying Bt bacteria to the crops, either as a liquid spray or as a powder. The Bt bacteria are ingested by the pests, and the Cry protein is activated, killing the pests and protecting the crops. Bt is considered to be a safe and effective alternative to chemical pesticides, as it is harmless to humans, animals, and the environment, and it targets specific pests rather than killing a wide range of insects.
- In addition to its use as a biological pesticide, Bt is also used in the production of genetically modified crops. This involves introducing the Cry gene from Bt into the genome of the crop plant, using techniques such as Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The genetically modified crops are then able to produce their own Cry protein, providing them with built-in pest resistance. This allows farmers to grow crops without the need for chemical pesticides, reducing their environmental impact and increasing their yield.
- Discuss the pros and cons of genetically engineered crops. Identify the most important issues surrounding this technology.
- Pros:
- increased crop yield by increasing size or unmber of plant's fruits or seeds or by improving plant's ability to tolerate environment (such as droughts or pests).
- enhanced nutritional value:
- GM crops can produce enhanced nutritional value (such as increased levels of vitamins or minerals).
- pest and disease resistance:
- GM crops can express genes that provide resistance to pests and diseases, reducing need for pesticides.
- reduces environmental impact of agriculture and improve sustainability of crops. - Cons:
- potential risks to human health:
- concerns that GM crops have negative effects on human health either directly or indirectly.
- no current evidence to justify that GM crops can harm humans.
- potential risks to environment:
- ex. GM crops can interact with organisms in ecosystem in unforeseen ways (mass killing pests).
- GM crops can be invasive disrupting natural ecosystems.
- no current evident to justify that GM crops can harm environment.
- Explain the "immune response" of a bacterium to a bacteriophage. Explain how this can be applied eukaryote systems.
- The immune response of a bacterium to a bacteriophage (also known as a phage) is a defense mechanism that prevents the phage from replicating inside the bacterium. When a phage infects a bacterium, it injects its own genetic material into the bacterium, using it to replicate and produce new phages. However, some bacteria have evolved mechanisms that can recognize the presence of phage DNA and prevent it from replicating.
- One such mechanism is called CRISPR-Cas (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-CRISPR associated proteins), which is an adaptive immune system found in bacteria and archaea. CRISPR-Cas works by recognizing and remembering sequences of DNA from previous phage infections, and using this information to target and destroy incoming phage DNA. This prevents the phage from replicating and spreading inside the bacterium.
- The CRISPR-Cas system has been studied extensively and has been adapted for use in eukaryotic systems, such as plants, animals, and human cells. This has allowed researchers to use CRISPR-Cas to edit the genome of eukaryotic organisms, allowing them to modify specific genes or remove unwanted DNA. This has many potential applications, such as improving crop yields, curing genetic diseases, and developing new therapies.
- Compare and contrast CRISPR technology with transformation of plant tissues using Agrobacterium.
- both methods allow researchers to precisely target specific genes.
- allows researches to modify specific traits of a plant.
- ex. pest resistance.
- allows researches to modify specific traits of a plant.
- differences:
- the way foreign DNA is introduced:
- CRISPR uses a protein called Cas9, which can cutoff DNA at specific locations.
- Agrobacterium-mediated transformation involves transferring small piece of DNA (T-DNA) from Agrobacterium into the plant cells, which is then integrated into plant genome.
- efficiency:
- CRISPR is highly efficient and specific with low levels of off-target effects
- can be used to make precise changes to plant genome with minmal unintended consequences.
- Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is less efficient and specific with higher levels of unintended consequences.
- may result in unintended changes to plant genome, and can have negative effects on plant's traits.
- CRISPR is highly efficient and specific with low levels of off-target effects
- the way foreign DNA is introduced:
- both methods allow researchers to precisely target specific genes.
- Describe the role of a plant in the development of treatments for COVID-19. - CRISPR was used for gene editing in crops which led to the same logic being applied for covid testing kit.
- Discuss the benefits and potential drawbacks of Golden Rice.
- Golden rice is a genetically modified type of rice that has been engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A.
- Benefits:
- The primary benefit of golden rice is that it has the potential to address vitamin A deficiency (through beta-carotene - which allows the body to convert beta-carotene into Vitamin A, depending on how much is needed), a condition that affects millions of people worldwide and can cause serious health problems, including blindness.
- By providing a source of vitamin A, golden rice could potentially improve the health and well-being of people who rely on rice as a staple food.
- Drawbacks:
- One potential drawback of golden rice is that it is genetically modified, which has raised concerns among some people about the safety of consuming genetically modified foods.
- not yet widely available, and there are logistical and financial challenges associated with its production and distribution.
- concerns that the introduction of golden rice could disrupt local agricultural systems and negatively impact small-scale farmers.
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COVID-19: Explain the infection cycle of SARS CoV-2 in terms of virus entry into the cell, its replication, and release. Discuss how an overactive immune system (cytokine storm) impacts the respiratory system of the host. Discuss the benefits of vaccination. Distinguish between the Pfizer (mRNA) and Medicago (protein) vaccines.
ex. The infection cycle of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, involves several steps:
Entry: The virus enters the host cell through a process called endocytosis, where the virus is engulfed by the cell and taken inside. The virus uses a protein called the spike protein to attach to a receptor on the surface of the host cell, called the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor.
Replication: Once inside the cell, the virus uses its own genetic material to hijack the cell's machinery and replicate itself. The virus produces new copies of its genetic material (RNA) and proteins, which are then assembled into new virus particles.
Release: The newly-formed virus particles are released from the host cell through a process called exocytosis, where they are released into the surrounding environment to infect other cells.
An overactive immune system, also known as a cytokine storm, can occur when the immune system overreacts to the presence of the virus. This can lead to the release of excessive amounts of cytokines, which are chemicals that are involved in the immune response. The excessive release of cytokines can cause inflammation and damage to the respiratory system, leading to severe respiratory symptoms such as difficulty breathing and pneumonia.
Vaccination can help to prevent infection by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Vaccines work by introducing a small amount of a weakened or inactivated form of the virus into the body, which prompts the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus. If the person is later exposed to the actual virus, their immune system will be able to quickly produce the antibodies and prevent the virus from replicating and causing illness.
The Pfizer vaccine uses a technology called messenger RNA (mRNA), which is a type of genetic material. The vaccine contains mRNA that encodes the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. When the vaccine is administered, the mRNA is taken up by the host cells and used to produce the spike protein, which then stimulates the production of antibodies against the virus.
The Medicago vaccine uses a different technology, where the vaccine contains proteins that are produced by plants. The proteins are similar to the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, and are used to stimulate the production of antibodies against the virus. The plant-based approach allows for rapid production of the vaccine in large quantities.
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**Biotechnology: A large proportion of transgenic crops have been genetically modified with genes from bacteria that protect the plant from insect attack. For Bt corn, describe the process by which plants are transformed (DNA stably incorporated into the plant nuclear genome) and explain the processes of transcription and translation that leads to the production of the insecticidal proteins. There is a lot of controversy over transgenic crops - do you think the benefits outweigh the drawbacks? Explain.
ex. Transgenic crops are plants that have been genetically modified by inserting DNA from another organism, such as a bacterium, into their genome. This allows the plant to express new traits, such as resistance to insect attack.
One example of a transgenic crop is Bt corn, which has been modified to express genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. These genes encode for insecticidal proteins, which are toxic to certain insects that feed on the corn plant.
To create transgenic crops, plant scientists use a technique called gene transfer, which involves inserting the desired DNA into the plant genome. This can be done using a variety of methods, such as using a bacterium to deliver the DNA into the plant cells, or using a gene gun to physically shoot the DNA into the plant tissue.
Once the desired DNA has been inserted into the plant genome, it is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein. This process occurs in the same way in transgenic plants as it does in non-transgenic plants.
There is a lot of controversy surrounding transgenic crops, and opinions on whether the benefits outweigh the drawbacks vary. Some people argue that transgenic crops can help increase crop yields and reduce the use of pesticides, while others are concerned about potential negative impacts on the environment and human health. Ultimately, the decision whether to use transgenic crops or not is a complex one that depends on many factors, including the specific crop and the potential risks and benefits.
Transgenic crops, also known as genetically modified (GM) crops, are plants that have been genetically modified by inserting DNA from another organism into their genome. This allows the plant to express new traits, such as resistance to insect attack or tolerance to herbicides.
Some potential benefits of transgenic crops include:
- Increased crop yields: Transgenic crops can be engineered to be more resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stressors, which can help increase crop yields and improve food security.
- Reduced use of pesticides: Transgenic crops that are resistant to pests can reduce the need for chemical pesticides, which can help protect the environment and human health.
- Improved nutrition and disease resistance: Transgenic crops can be engineered to have enhanced nutritional content or increased resistance to diseases, which can improve human health and well-being.
- Economic benefits: Transgenic crops can help farmers reduce their production costs and increase their profits, which can have positive economic effects at the local and national level.
- Environmental benefits: Transgenic crops can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and soil erosion, and can also help conserve water and other natural resources.
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Climate Change in the Boreal Forest: The Boreal forest (northern Canada) is predicted to be the biome that will experience the largest temperature increase in the world. This short reading that will help you with your essay: link Links to an external site..
The foodweb below represents interactions of a community in the Boreal Forest. Predict the ecological consequences of global climate change within this community. Include in your essay a description of the trophic relationships and how they will change due to climate change. Identify apex predator(s), keystone species, one r-strategist, and one k-strategist (explain why you have selected these organisms). Note: if this essay is selected the foodweb will be included. ![[Pasted image 20221201171651.png]]