This is the Mamba programming language. Mamba is like Python, but with a few key features:
- Strict static typing rules, but with type inference so it doesn't get in the way too much
- Type refinement features
- Null safety
- Explicit error handling
- A distinction between mutability and immutability
- Pure functions, or, functions without side effects
This is a transpiler, written in Rust, which converts Mamba source files to Python source files. Mamba code should therefore be interoperable with Python code. Functions written in Python can be called in Mamba and vice versa (from the generated Python files).
Below are some code examples to showcase the features of Mamba. We highlight how functions work, how de define classes, how types and type refinement features are applied, how Mamba can be used to ensure pureness, and how error handling works.
We can write a simple script that computes the factorial of a value given by the user.
def factorial(x: Int) -> Int => match x
0 => 1
n => n * factorial(n - 1)
def num := input("Compute factorial: ")
if num.is_digit() then
def result := factorial(Int(num))
print("Factorial {num} is: {result}.")
else
print("Input was not an integer.")
Notice how here we specify the type of argument x, in this case an Int, by writing x: Int.
This means that the compiler will check for us that factorial is only used with integers as argument.
Note One could use dynamic programming in the above example so that we consume less memory:
def factorial(x: Int) -> Int => match x
0 => 1
n =>
def ans := 1
for i in 1 ..= n do ans := ans * i
ans
Classes are similar to classes in Python, though we can for each function state whether we can write to self or not by stating whether it is mutable or not.
If we write self, it is mutable, whereas if we write fin self, it is immutable and we cannot change its fields.
We can do the same for any field. We showcase this using a simple dummy Server object.
from ipaddress import IPv4Address
class ServerError(def message: Str): Exception(message)
def fin always_the_same_message := "Connected!"
class MyServer(def ip_address: IPv4Address)
def is_connected: Bool := False
def _last_message: Str := "temp"
def last_sent(fin self) -> Str raise [ServerError] =>
self._last_message
def connect(self) =>
self.is_connected := True
print(always_the_same_message)
def send(self, message: Str) raise [ServerError] =>
if self.is_connected then
self._last_message := message
else
raise ServerError("Not connected!")
def disconnect(self) => self.is_connected := False
Notice how self is not mutable in last_sent, meaning we can only read variables, whereas in connect self is mutable, so we can change properties of self.
We can then use MyServer as follows:
import ipaddress
from server import MyServer
def fin some_ip := ipaddress.ip_address("151.101.193.140")
def my_server := MyServer(some_ip)
http_server.connect()
if my_server.is_connected then http_server.send("Hello World!")
# This statement may raise an error, but for now de simply leave it as-is
# See the error handling section for more detail
print("last message sent before disconnect: \"{my_server.last_sent()}\".")
my_server.disconnect()
As shown above Mamba has a type system. Mamba however also has type refinement features to assign additional properties to types. Lets expand our server example from above, and rewrite it slightly:
from ipaddress import IPv4Address
type ConnMyServer: MyServer when self.is_connected
type DisConnMyServer: MyServer when not self.is_connected
class ServerErr(def message: Str): Exception(message)
class MyServer(self: DisConnMyServer, def ip_address: IPv4Address)
def is_connected: Bool := False
def _last_message: Str? := None
def last_sent(self) -> Str raise [ServerErr] =>
if self.last_message != None then
self._last_message
else
raise ServerError("No last message!")
def connect(self: DisConnMyServer) => self.is_connected := True
def send(self: ConnMyServer, message: Str) => self._last_message := message
def disconnect(self: ConnMyServer) => self.is_connected := False
Within the then branch of the if statement, we know that self._last_message is a Str.
This is because we performed a check in the if condition.
Also Notice how above, we define the type of self.
Each type effectively denotes another state that self can be in.
For each type, we use when to show that it is a type refinement, which certain conditions.
import ipaddress
from server import MyServer
def fin some_ip := ipaddress.ip_address("151.101.193.140")
def my_server := MyServer(some_ip)
# The default state of http_server is DisconnectedHTTPServer, so we don't need to check that here
http_server.connect()
# We check the state
if my_server isa ConnMyServer then
# http_server is a Connected Server if the above is true
my_server.send("Hello World!")
print("last message sent before disconnect: \"{my_server.last_sent}\".")
if my_server isa ConnectedMyServer then my_server.disconnect()
Type refinement also allows us to specify the domain and co-domain of a function, say, one that only takes and returns positive integers:
type PosInt: Int when
self >= 0 else "Must be greater than 0"
def factorial(x: PosInt) -> PosInt => match x
0 => 1
n => n * factorial(n - 1)
In short, types allow us to specify the domain and co-domain of functions with regards to the type of input, say, Int
or Str. During execution, a check is done to verify that the variable does conform to the requirements of the
refined type. If it does not, an exception is raised.
Type refinement allows us to do some additional things:
- It allows us to further specify the domain or co-domain of a function
- It allows us to explicitly name the possible states of an object. This means that we don't constantly have to check that certain conditions hold. We can simply ask whether a given object is a certain state by checking whether it is a certain type.
Mamba has features to ensure that functions are pure, meaning that if x = y, for any f, f(x) = f(y).
(Except if the output of the function is say None or NaN.)
By default, functions are not pure, and can read any variable they want, such as in Python.
When we make a function pure, it cannot:
- Read non-final properties of
self. - Call impure functions.
Some rules hold for calling and assigning to passed arguments to uphold the pure property (meaning, no side-effects):
- Anything defined within the function body is fair game, it may be used whatever way, as it will be destroyed upon exiting the function.
- An argument may be assigned to, as this will not modify the original reference.
- The field of an argument may not be assigned to, as this will modify the original reference.
- One may only read fields of an argument which are final (
fin). - One may only call methods of an argument which are pure (
pure).
When a function is pure, its output is always the same for a given input.
It also has no side-effects, meaning that it cannot write anything (assign to mutable variables) or read from them.
Immutable variables and pure functions make it easier to write declarative programs with no hidden dependencies.
# taylor is immutable, its value does not change during execution
def fin taylor := 7
# the sin function is pure, its output depends solely on the input
def pure sin(x: Int) =>
def ans := x
for i in 1 ..= taylor .. 2 do
ans := ans + (x ^ (i + 2)) / (factorial (i + 2))
ans
Unlike Python, Mamba does not have try except and finally (or try catch as it is sometimes known).
Instead, we aim to directly handle errors on-site so the origin of errors is more tracable.
The following is only a brief example.
We can modify the above script such that we don't check whether the server is connected or not.
In that case, we must handle the case where my_server throws a ServerErr:
import ipaddress
from server import MyServer
def fin some_ip := ipaddress.ip_address("151.101.193.140")
def my_server := MyServer(some_ip)
def message := "Hello World!"
my_server.send(message) handle
err: ServerErr => print("Error while sending message: \"{message}\": {err}")
if my_server isa ConnectedMyServer then my_server.disconnect()
In the above script, we will always print the error since we forgot to actually connect to the server.
Here we showcase how we try to handle errors on-site instead of in a (large) try block.
This means that we don't need a finally block: We aim to deal with the error where it happens and then continue executing the remaining code.
This also prevents us from wrapping large code blocks in a try, where it might not be clear what statement or expression might throw what error.
handle can also be combined with an assign. In that case, we must either always return (halting execution or exiting the function), or evaluate to a value.
This is shown below:
def g() =>
def a := function_may_throw_err() handle
err: MyErr =>
print("We have a problem: {err.message}.")
return # we return, halting execution
err: MyOtherErr =>
print("We have another problem: {err.message}.")
0 # ... or we assign default value 0 to a
print("a has value {a}.")
If we don't want to use a handle, we can simply use raise after a statement or exception to show that its execution might result in an exception, but we don't want to handle that here.
See the sections above for examples where we don't handle errors and simply pass them on using raise.
USAGE:
mamba.exe [FLAGS] [OPTIONS]
FLAGS:
-a, --annotate Enable type annotation of the output source.
Currently still buggy feature.
-d, --debug Add line numbers to log statements
-h, --help Prints help information
-l, --level Print log level
--no-module-path Disable the module path in the log statements
--no-color Disable colorized output
-v Set level of verbosity
- v : info, error, warning printed to sterr (Default)
- vv : debug messages are printed
- vvv : trace messages are printed
-V, --version Prints version information
OPTIONS:
-i, --input <INPUT> Input file or directory.
If file, file taken as input.
If directory, recursively search all sub-directories for *.mamba files.
If no input given, current directory used as input directory.
-o, --output <OUTPUT> Output directory to store Python files.
Output directory structure reflects input directory structure.
If no output given, 'target' directory created in current directory.
You can type mamba -help for a message containing roughly the above information.
Before submitting your first issue or pull request, please take the time to read both our contribution guidelines and our code of conduct.